# unfoldingWord Aramaic Grammar

## unfoldingWord® Aramaic Grammar

### Introduction

The unfoldingWord® Aramaic Grammar (UAG) is a Biblical Aramaic reference grammar based on the morphology codes that appear in the Open Scriptures Hebrew Bible (OSHB). It enables the global Church to gain understanding of the Aramaic grammar of the Old Testament.

### Rationale

The rationale behind creating the first version of the UAG was to provide an openly licensed and up to date reference grammar for direct use with the OSHB. Such a grammar may be used in software to provide students and translators of Scripture with up to date and accurate descriptions of Aramaic grammar on an as needed basis. Because the articles are directly patterned after the morphological categories of the OSHB, it is easy for software to link directly to them.

### Methodology

In 2017-2018, a team of scholars and technicians worked together to create and revise each of the articles in the unfoldingWord® Hebrew Grammar (UHG) over the course of a year and a half. The creation process included individuals drafting glossary and article entries for each grammatical topic and then a series of peer reviews of each. Several meetings were held to help standardize the format of the articles and to discuss difficult issues as they arose. The UAG is an adaptation of the UHG using the same format but with the content tailored for Aramaic instead of Hebrew.

The differentiation between the glossary entries and the articles is similar to the approach of many Wikipedia articles. The glossary entry is a one or two sentence summary of the grammatical topic, while the article goes into much more detail and includes several examples. This has the effect of being useful in a pop up or tooltip in software applications, which may provide immediate access to the glossary in the pop up and then link to the full article.

A unique design goal was to make the language of the grammar as simple and understandable so that the resource can more easily be translated into the Gateway Languages of the world. This should also have the effect of rendering the grammar accessible to people of varied educational backgrounds and varied proficiency in the English language.

The work was completed using an online content creation and translation platform, the Door43 Content Service. Because of this, all the work is under revision control, you can go back and see the commit history if you’d like (it totals over 2700 commits at the time of writing).

### Future

We plan to extend the UAG, in conjunction with the unfoldingWord® Hebrew Bible, to cover higher level syntactic and semantic information. Rather than replacing the existing form-centric morphology of the OSHB, we would add another parsing layer on top of it that focuses on the function of the words and phrases. This will generate a new list of categories that will need explanations in the UAG. Some examples of new categories are discourse markers, specific uses of imperfect forms, context sensitive gender identification and the like.

A further extension may be to take the raw material from this work and augment and format it to be useful as a teaching grammar. Again, the idea here would be to provide a resource that could easily be translated and adapted into other Gateway Languages.

If either of these ideas intrigue you, let us know at https://www.unfoldingword.org/contact/, we’d love to have your involvement!

### Downloads

The latest version of the UAG may be downloaded in the following formats:

- UAG HTML zip file

- UAG HTML Epub file

- UAG reStructuredText source files

PDF is not currently offered due to complications with mixing RTL and LTR text.

### Contributors

This resource was designed by unfoldingWord and built by the Door43 World Missions Community. At least the following people were instrumental in the creation of the UHG:

- Joel D. Ruark (M.A.Th. Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary; Th.M., Ph.D. Old Testament, Stellenbosch University)

- Perry Oakes (BA Biblical Studies, Taylor University; MA Theology, Fuller Seminary; MA Linguistics, University of Texas at Arlington; PhD Old Testament, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary)

- Jesse Griffin (BA Biblical Studies, Liberty University; MA Biblical Languages, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary)

- Aaron M. Valdizan (M.Div., Th.M., Ph.D. Candidate Old Testament, The Master’s Seminary)

- Johan de Joode

### License

unfoldingWord® Aramaic Grammar

Copyright © 2022 by unfoldingWord

This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA.

unfoldingWord® is a registered trademark of unfoldingWord. Use of the unfoldingWord name or logo requires the written permission of unfoldingWord. Under the terms of the CC BY-SA license, you may copy and redistribute this unmodified work as long as you keep the unfoldingWord® trademark intact. If you modify a copy or translate this work, thereby creating a derivative work, you must remove the unfoldingWord® trademark.

On the derivative work, you must indicate what changes you have made and attribute the work as follows: “The original work by unfoldingWord is available from unfoldingword.org/uhg)”. You must also make your derivative work available under the same license (CC BY-SA).

If you would like to notify unfoldingWord regarding your translation of this work, please contact us at unfoldingword.org/contact/.

## Adjective

### Summary

An `adjective` is a word that describes a person(s), place(s), or thing(s). Within a sentence, an adjective usually describes a noun.

However, in Biblical Aramaic an adjective itself can function as a noun or even as an adverb (to describe a verb).

### Article

In Bibical Aramaic, adjectives follow the noun they describe and match that noun in gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular or plural). However, there are some exceptions to this rule. If a noun is dual, its accompanying adjective will be plural. Also, the gender of some nouns does not match their apparent form (as in אֶבֶן, meaning “stone,” which is grammatically-feminine although it appears grammatically-masculine). In these cases, an accompanying adjective will match the gender of the noun itself rather than the apparent form. Also, for nouns with collective singular (as in עַם, meaning “people”), the accompanying adjective may match the implied number rather than the apparent form.

### Form

The forms of the adjective closely resemble the forms of the common noun.

#### Paradigm

Adjective Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular absolute | טָב | tobh | good
masculine singular construct | טָב | tobh | good of
masculine singular determined | טָבָא | tobha’ | the good
feminine singular absolute | טָבָה | tobhah | good
feminine singular construct | טָבַת | tobhath | good of
feminine singular determined | טָבְתָּא | tobhta’ | the good
masculine plural absolute | טָבִין | tobhiyn | good
masculine plural contruct | טָבֵי | tobhey | good of
masculine plural determined | טָבַיָּא | tobhayya’ | the good
feminine plural absolute | טָבָן | tobhan | good
feminine plural construct | טָבָת | tobath | good of
feminine plural determined | טָבָתָא | tobhatha’ | the good

### Function

#### Describes a noun

The most common use of adjectives is to describe a noun directly. There are two kinds of adjectives that function in this way, attributive adjectives and predicative adjectives.

In Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic, an `attributive adjective` almost always immediately follows the noun that it describes and has the same form in gender, number, and definiteness. Thus, if the noun is masculine, the adjective is also masculine. If the noun is singular, the adjective is also singular. If the noun is definite, the adjective is also definite; and so on.

Example: DAN 2:6
מַתְּנָ֤ן וּנְבִזְבָּה֙ וִיקָ֣ר שַׂגִּ֔יא |  |
mattenan unbhizbah viyqar saggiy’ |  |
gifts and-a-reward and-honor great |  |
gifts from me | a reward | and great honor

Note

When a cardinal or an ordinal number functions as an attributive adjective, sometimes it comes before the noun it describes instead of after the noun.

Example: 1SA 18:17 (This table is a place holder until an Aramaic example is put in)
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter

`Predicative adjectives` are adjectives that describe nouns using a linking verb. Often the linking verb is not present in the Hebrew text and must be supplied when translating into English. Like attributive adjectives, a predicative adjective usually has the same form as the noun it describes in both gender and number. Unlike attributive adjectives, however, a predicative adjective can be indefinite even if it describes a definite noun.

Example: DAN 2:5
מִלְּתָ֖א מִנִּ֣י אַזְדָּ֑א
milletha’ minniy ‘azda’
the-matter from-me gone
The matter is gone from me

Note

Sometimes, predicative adjectives and attributive adjectives look identical and must be distinguished from the context.

Example: 1SA 18:17 (This table is a place holder until an Aramaic example is put in)
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter

#### Functions as a noun

A `nominal adjective` is an adjective that itself functions as a noun in the sentence rather than describing a noun.

Example: DAN 2:9
כִדְבָ֤ה וּשְׁחִיתָה֙ הִזְדְּמִנְתּוּן֙ לְמֵאמַ֣ר קָֽדָמַ֔י
khidhbhah ushchiythah hizdemintun leme’mar qadhamay
false and-deceptive you-have-conspired to-say before-me
You have conspired to speak before me false and deceptive words

#### Functions as an adverb

An `adverbial adjective` is an adjective that functions as an adverb, meaning that it describes a verb instead of a noun.

Example: 1SA 18:17 (This table is a place holder until an Aramaic example is put in)
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter

#### Other uses of adjectives

##### adjectives that compare two or more items

A `comparative adjective` expresses a comparison between two or more items.

Example: 1SA 18:17 (This table is a place holder until an Aramaic example is put in)
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter

##### adjectives with stronger meaning

An `intensive adjective` has a stronger degree of meaning than a typical adjective.

Example: 1SA 18:17 (This table is a place holder until an Aramaic example is put in)
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter

##### adjectives with strongest meaning

A `superlative adjective` has a meaning strengthened to its greatest degree.

Example: 1SA 18:17 (This table is a place holder until an Aramaic example is put in)
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter
בִתִּ֨י הַגְּדוֹלָ֤ה
vitti haggedolah
my-daughter the-old
my older daughter

## Adjective Cardinal Number

### Summary

Cardinal numbers are used to describe quantity or to express the name of a number itself (“one”, “two”, “three”, etc.).

### Article

Neither Biblical Hebrew nor Biblical Aramaic contains numerals (“1”, “2”, “3”, etc.) but rather uses words to express numbers (“one”, “two”, “three”, etc.). There are two different kinds of numbers: cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers. Cardinal numbers are used either to express the name of a number itself or to express the quantity of a thing (“one”, “two”, “three”, etc.).

Cardinal numbers function as attributive adjectives, but they do not always follow the same grammatical rules. They may appear either before or after the noun they describe, and they may not always have the same grammatical form (gender, number, definiteness) as the noun they describe. As with other adjectives, a cardinal number can function as a noun and can appear in either the absolute the construct state.

Note

Sometimes a cardinal form (“one”, “two”, “three”, etc.) is used, but an ordinal meaning (“first”, “second”, “third”, etc.) is clearly indicated from the context.

### “One”

“One” Paradigm
Form | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular absolute | חַד | chadh | one
masculine singular construct | חַד | chadh | one of
masculine singular determined | חַדָא | chadha’ | the one
feminine singular absolute | חֲדָה | chedhah | one
feminine singular construct | חֲדָת | chedhath | one of
feminine singular determined | חֲדָתָּא | chedhata’ | the one

### “Two”

“Two” Paradigm
Form | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular absolute | תְּרֵין | tereyn | two
masculine singular construct | תְּרֵי | terey | two of
masculine singular determined | תְּרֵיָא | tereya’ | the two
feminine singular absolute | תַּרְתֵּין | tarteyn | two
feminine singular construct | תַּרְתֵּי | tartey | two of
feminine singular determined | תַּרְתֵּיָא | tarteya’ | the two

### 3-10

3-10 Paradigm
Form | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular absolute | תְּלָתָה | telathah | three
feminine singular absolute | תְּלָת | telath | three
masculine singular absolute | אַרְבְּעָה | ‘arbe’ah | four
feminine singular absolute | אַרְבַּע | ‘arba’ | four
masculine singular absolute | חַמְשָׁה | chamshah | five
feminine singular absolute | חֲמֵשׁ | chemesh | five
masculine singular absolute | שִׁתָּה | shittah | six
feminine singular absolute | שֵׁת | sheth | six
masculine singular absolute | שִׁבְעָה | shibh’ah | seven
feminine singular absolute | שְׁבַע | shebha’ | seven
masculine singular absolute | תְּמָנִיָה | temaniyah | eight
feminine singular absolute | תְּמָנֵה | temaneh | eight
masculine singular absolute | תִּשְׁעָה | tish’ah | nine
feminine singular absolute | תֵּשַׁע | tesha’ | nine
masculine singular absolute | עַשְׂרָה | ‘asrah | ten
feminine singular absolute | עֲשַׂר | ‘esar | ten

### 11-19

The numbers 11-19 are formed by writing the number 1-9 followed by the number 10. Thus, in Biblical Aramaic the number “eleven” is written as “one ten”; the number “seventeen” is written as “seven ten”, etc.

11-19 Paradigm
Form | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine | תְּרֵי עֲשַׂר | terey ‘esar | twelve

### 20-99

#### Multiples of ten (20, 30, 40, etc.)

Multiples of Ten Paradigm
Form | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
gender both | עֶשְׂרִין | ‘esriyn | twenty
gender both | תְּלָתִין | telathiyn | thirty
gender both | אַרְבְּעִין | ‘arbe’iyn | forty
gender both | חַמְשִׁין | chameshiyn | fifty
gender both | שִׁתִּין | shittiyn | sixty
gender both | שִׁבְעִין | shibh’iyn | seventy
gender both | תְּמָנִין | temaniyn | eighty
gender both | תִּשְׁעִין | tish’iyn | ninety

#### Multiples of ten plus units (21, 32, 43, etc.)

These numbers are written following the same rules as the numbers 11-19. Thus, the number “twenty-one” is written as “one twenty”; the number “thirty-two” is written as “two thirty”; the number “forty-three” is writen as “three forty”, etc.

### Multiples of 100, 1000, 10000, etc.

The nouns “hundred” (100) and “thousand” (1000) function the same as any other common noun with singular, dual, and plural forms. Although the number for “hundred” uses feminine endings and the number for “thousand” uses masculine endings, both numbers should be classified as “gender both” because the same form can be both grammatically-masculine and grammatically-feminine.

Multiples of 100, 1000, 10000, etc. Paradigm
Form | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
gender both singular absolute | מְאָה | me’ah | hundred
gender both singular construct | מְאַת | me’ath | hundred of
gender both dual absolute | מָאתַיִן | ma’thayin | two hundred
gender both plural absolute | אַרְבַּע מְאָה | ‘arba’ me’ah | four hundred
gender both singular absolute | אֲלַף | ‘elaph | thousand
gender both singular determined | אַלְפָּא | ‘alpa’ | the thousand
gender both singular absolute | רִבּוֹ | ribbo | ten thousand

## Adjective Gentilic

### Summary

The name(s) of spoken language(s) are considered gentilic adjectives.

### Article

The names of spoken languages are the only terms that are considered by this grammar as proper “gentilic adjectives”. However, scholars disagree concerning which terms should be called gentilic nouns or gentilic adjectives. This is because most gentilics in both Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic can legitimately be classified as either nouns or adjectives.

Note

Some gentilic nouns that follow nouns in the absolute state function like attributive adjectives. Some scholars call these gentilic adjectives as well (for example, “Ruth the Moabitess”).

### Examples

## Adjective Ordinal Number

### Summary

Ordinal numbers are used to express a rank or order of items in a series (first, second, third, etc.) or to express a part of a whole (a third, a fourth, a fifth, etc.).

### Article

Ordinal numbers are used to express a rank or order of items in a series (first, second, third, etc.) or to express a part of a whole (a third, a fourth, a fifth, etc.).

### “First” through “Tenth”

“First” through “Fourth” Paradigm
word | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine | קַדְמָי | qadhmay | first
feminine | קַדְמָיָה | qadhmayah | first
masculine | תִּנְיָן | tinyan | second
feminine | תִּנְיָנָה | tinyanah | second
masculine | תְּלִיתָי | teliythay | third
feminine | תְּלִיתָיהָ | teliythayha | third
masculine | רְבִיעָי | rebhiy’ay | fourth
feminine | רְבִיעָיהָ | rebhiy’ayha | fourth

### “Fifth” and higher

The cardinal forms are used for ordinal numbers higher than four (“fifth,” “sixth,” “eleventh,” “twelfth,” etc.).

### Part of a whole

## Adverb

### Summary

An `adverb` is a word that describes a verb, or sometimes describes a sentence as a whole.

Some particles in Biblical Hebrew are closely related to adverbs.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, an adverb usually either describes the action of a specific verb or describes an entire clause/sentence.

### Describes a verb

There are several different ways that an adverb can describe a verb.

#### describes a place or location

A `locative adverb` describes something about the place or location where the action of the verb happens.

#### describes time

A `temporal adverb` describes something about the time when the action of the verb happens.

#### describes manner of action

An `adverb of manner` describes something about how the action of the verb happens.

#### describes quantity

A `quantitative adverb` describes an amount of something in relation to the action of the verb.

#### describes quality

A `qualitative adverb` describes the value of something in relation to the action of the verb.

### Describes an entire clause or sentence

A `sentential adverb` describes an entire clause or sentence rather than an individual verb. Sentential adverbs are closely related to conjunctions.

## Conjunction

### Summary

A `conjunction` is a word that shows a relationship between two different words, phrases, sentences, or even entire paragraphs. In other words, conjunctions are grammatical connectors. The most common conjunctions in English are “and,” “or,” “but,” and “for.” Conjunctions are closely related to both sentential adverbs and particles.

Some particles in Biblical Aramaic are closely related to conjunctions.

### Article

Biblical Aramaic contains only one primary conjunction (the prefix וְ), but a whole family of other words also function as conjunctions. In Biblical Aramaic, particles and conjunctions are often combined with each other to form compound conjunctions. Compound conjunctions should not be considered merely as the sum of the components, but rather as a single grammatical entity with its own range of meanings which may or may not be different than the individual component words.

There are eight major categories of conjunctions. There are others as well, but these are the main kinds of conjunctions: conjunctive (“and”); alternative (“or”); contrastive (“but”); explicative (“surely”); causal (“for”); conditional (“if”); concessive (“except”); restrictive (“only”).

Sentences in Biblical Aramaic often begin with the conjunction ו (as either a consonant or a shureq vowel). This conjunction וְ (“and”) cannot stand alone as an independent word but must be connected to another word as a prefix. This can be added to a noun, a verb, a pronoun, or a particle. The shewa in וְ can lengthen to a vowel, usually pathah (when paired with the definite article) or qamets (when paired with both the article and a ה prefix), but others are also possible.

Note

The conjunction וְ is often left untranslated when it begins a sentence or clause.

Also, the conjunction is often added between every item of a list in Biblical Aramaic; but in English the וְ may not be translated for each item.

### -וְ

#### Form

The conjunction וְ can appear as a prefix to either a word or particle.

#### Function

The conjunction וְ can express any of the following connective relationships:

##### Conjunctive

A `conjunctive` conjunction simply joins two words/phrases/sentences together and is usually translated as “and” in English. This kind of conjunction can be used either comparatively (joining similar ideas) or contrastively (joining dissimilar ideas).

##### Alternative

An `alternative` conjunction compares two words/phrases/sentences as alternates and is usually translated as “or” in English.

##### Contrastive

A `contrastive` conjunction contrasts two words/phrases/sentences as different in some way and is usually translated as “but” in English.

#### Causal

A `causal` conjunction expresses a relationship of cause (of some kind) between two grammatical items. These can include a relationship of reason or result as well as a relationship of purpose or goal. However, sometimes it is extremely difficult to distinguish between a causal conjunction that expresses purpose/goal and one that expresses reason/result.

##### expresses reason or result

This kind of causal conjunction expresses either the reason for or the result of an action/event. In English, it is usually translated as “for” or “because”.

##### expresses purpose or goal

This kind of causal conjunction expresses the purpose for or intended outcome of an action/event. In English, it is usually translated as “for” or “so that”.

#### Conditional

A `conditional` conjunction introduces either a hypothetical situation or an actual situation, as determined by the context.

##### expresses a hypothetical condition

A `hypothetical condition` expresses an imaginary action or event that has not actually happened in reality. This kind of conditional conjunction is usually translated as “if” in English. Hypothetical conditions have potential to convey many different nuances of possibility and/or desirability.

##### expresses an actual condition

An `actual condition` expresses an action or event that has actually happened in reality, and is usually translated as “when” or “while” in English. Usually, this kind of condition indicates something that is happening concurrently with the main action/event being described, or something that has happened in the past in certain circumstances.

A `restrictive` conjunction sets apart a clause or phrase as unique within its context. Sometimes this restrictive function emphasizes a particular item as the most important or most prominent; in these cases, the conjunction is similar in meaning to an affirmative conjunction. At other times, however, this restrictive function introduces a particular limitation to something previously expressed; in these cases, this conjunction is similar in meaning to a concessive conjunction.

##### expresses an actual condition

An `actual condition` expresses an action or event that has actually happened in reality, and is usually translated as “when” or “while” in English. Usually, this kind of condition indicates something that is happening concurrently with the main action/event being described, or something that has happened in the past in certain circumstances.

### Compound conjunctions

Note

Sometimes multiple conjunctions or particles appear together but do NOT form a compound conjunction; in such cases, each word retains its individual range of meanings. These instances must be determined from the context. If in doubt, consult a dictionary or lexicon for the exact meaning of any specific occurrence.

## Definiteness

### Summary

The concept of definiteness in Biblical Aramaic is a way of referring to a person(s) or thing(s). Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and participles can be either definite or indefinite, depending on several factors.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, nouns and pronouns either can be definite on the basis of their own intrinsic nature or can be made definite by a linguistic marking or grammatical construction. Generally speaking, adjectives and participles (both active and passive) are always intrinsically indefinite, but they can be made definite by the use of the determined ending or a pronominal suffix, or by being connected to a definite noun in a construct relationship.

As a general summary, definiteness in Biblical Aramaic functions in the following ways: 1) to designate a specific person/thing, or a class of person(s)/thing(s) that are intrinsically definite; 2) to match a noun to its accompanying descriptor (often with adjectives or participles); 3) to introduce a relative clause (often with participles); and/or 4) to indicate a superlative or demonstrative (especially in regard to time) referent. However, these are only general designations and do not represent a comprehesive list.

Note

The concept of definiteness works differently in various languages; therefore, definite/indefinite terms should always be translated from Biblical Aramaic into other languages with great sensitivity to the context of each individual use and according to the conventions of definiteness in the target language.

### Intrinsically definite terms

There are three types of terms that are intrinsically definite: proper nouns, personal pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.

#### Proper nouns

#### Personal pronouns

#### Demonstrative pronouns

### Terms made definite by linguistic marking or grammatical construction

Biblical Aramaic has three ways to make a term definite: by adding the determined ending, by adding a pronominal suffix, or by connecting it to a definite term in a construct relationship.

#### Determined state

#### Pronominal suffix

#### Construction with a definite noun

### Function of definiteness

#### Refers to a specific person, thing, or idea

#### Refers to a general class/category of items

Sometimes a definite term refers to a general class or category instead to referring to a specific item. This can be a general category of people, a general class of objects, a generic type of material, etc. Usually the meaning is clear from the context.

##### people

Sometimes a definite term is used in this way when a person directly addresses another person.

##### material

Sometimes a definite term is used to indicate the substance of which a thing is made.

#### Matches an adjective to a noun

In Biblical Aramaic, when a definite common noun is followed by a definite attributive adjective, an adjectival participle, or a noun in apposition, the determined ending on both terms shows that they belong together. In other words, that particular adjective is describing that particular noun.

#### Introduces a verbal relative clause

When the determined ending is used on a verbal form, it refers to the person(s) doing the action described by the verb and is translated very much like a Particle Relative. The determined ending is used in this way usually with participles (active or passive).

## Gender Both

### Summary

A word is classified as “both gender” if it contains both a masculine and a feminine form, or if a single form is masculine in some contexts and feminine in other contexts.

### Article

Some words appear in both a masculine and a feminine form. Other words have only one form, but that single form can be either grammatically-masculine or grammatically-feminine. These kinds of words are classified as “gender both”, and they are usually nouns or adjectives. Sometimes the context can determine the gender of a particular instance of a “gender both” noun, but sometimes the context is inconclusive.

### Examples

#### A single word with both masculine and feminine forms

#### A single form that can be either masculine or feminine

## Gender Common

### Summary

A word is classified as “common gender” if it can refer to either a grammatically-masculine or a grammatically-feminine person/thing.

### Article

A word is parsed as “common” (in other systems sometimes “unmarked”), when it has potential to refer to either a masculine or a feminine person or thing. Words classified as “common gender” are usually pronouns or verbs.

### Examples

In both Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic, 1st person personal pronouns are “gender common”.

In both Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic, finite verbs in 1st person conjugation are “gender common”.

## Gender Feminine

### Summary

Nouns, adjectives, finite verbs, participles, pronouns, pronominal suffixes, and some particles change their form is according to their grammatical gender, either masculine or feminine.

In Biblical Aramaic, the feminine gender is often marked by either a ־ָה (qamets-he) or ־ָן (qamets-nun) suffix, but various other prefixes and suffixes can also indicate feminine gender.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, nouns are classified according to gender, either masculine, feminine, or sometimes both. Grammatical modifiers (such as adjectives, active and passive participles, pronouns, pronominal suffixes) change their endings in order to agree with the gender of the term they refer to. A finite verb with feminine gender indicates a feminine subject. All references to female persons in Biblical Aramaic are feminine. However, other entities apart from people can also be classified as feminine. For example, the proper names of cities are often feminine in Biblical Aramaic, as well as body parts that exist as pairs (hand, foot, etc.). Some particles are also marked for gender in Biblical Aramaic.

Note

Some feminine nouns do NOT take feminine endings, even some common nouns such as אֶבֶן (stone). They appear to be masculine nouns, but they are actually feminine nouns. A dictionary or lexicon will indicate the proper gender for each word.

### Form

Pe’al Perfect Feminine Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
second person feminine singular | כְּתַבְתִּי | kethabhtiy | you wrote
second person feminine plural | כְּתַבְתֵּן | kethabhtan | you wrote
third person feminine singular | כִּתְבַת | kithbhath | she wrote
third person feminine plural | כְּתַבָה | kethabhah | they wrote

Pe’al Imperfect Conjugation Feminine Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
second person feminine singular | תִּכְתְּבִין | tikhtebhiyn | you will write
second person feminine plural | תִּכְתְּבָן | tikhtebhan | you will write
third person feminine singular | תִּכְתֻּב | tikhtubh | she will write
third person feminine plural | יִכְתְּבָן | yikhtebhan | they will write

Independent Personal Pronoun Feminine Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
second person feminine singular | אַנְתִּי | ‘antiy | you
second person feminine plural | אַנתֵּן | ‘antan | you
third person feminine singular | הִיא | hiy | she
third person feminine plural | אִנִּין | ‘inniyn | they

Pronominal Suffix Feminine Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
second person feminine singular | ־כִי | -khiy | your
second person feminine plural | ־כֵן | -khen | your
third person feminine singular | ־ַהּ | -ah | her
third person feminine plural | ־הֵן | -hen | their

## Gender Masculine

Nouns, adjectives, finite verbs, participles, pronouns, pronominal suffixes, and some particles change their form according to grammatical gender, either masculine or feminine. The masculine gender is usually indicated by the absence of any prefix or suffix. However, various prefixes and suffixes can indicate masculine gender.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, nouns are classified according to gender, either masculine, feminine, or sometimes both. Grammatical modifiers (such as adjectives, active and passive participles, pronouns, pronominal suffixes) change their endings in order to agree with the gender of the term they refer to. A finite verb with masculine gender indicates a masculine subject. All references to male persons in Biblical Aramaic are masculine. However, other entities apart from people can also be classified as masculine. For example, the proper names of nations and tribes are often masculine in Biblical Aramaic. Some particles are also marked for gender in Biblical Aramaic.

Note

Some nouns appear to be masculine but are actually feminine, even some common nouns such as אֶבֶן (stone). That is, some nouns are feminine even though they do NOT take feminine endings. A dictionary or lexicon will indicate the proper gender for each word.

### Form

Masculine singular nouns and adjectives have no unique ending; they are the standard dictionary form.

Pe’al Perfect Masculine Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
second person masculine singular | כְּתַבְתְּ | kethabhte | you wrote
second person masculine plural | כְּתַבְתּוּן | kethabhtun | you wrote
third person masculine singular | כְּתַב | kethabh | he wrote
third person masculine plural | כְתַבוּ | kethabhu | they wrote

Pe’al Imperfect Masculine Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
second person masculine singular | תִּכְתֻּב | tikhtubh | you will write
second person masculine plural | תִּכְתְּבוּן | tikhtebhun | you will write
third person masculine singular | יִכְתֻּב | yikhtubh | he will write
third person masculine plural | יִכְתְּבוּן | yikhtebhun | they will write

## Noun

### Summary

A noun is a word that refers to a person, a thing, a place, or an idea.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, all nouns contain number, gender, state, and definiteness. By number, a noun can be singular, plural, or dual. By gender, a noun can be masculine or feminine. By state, a noun can be in the construct state or in the absolute state. Nouns are listed in a Aramaic dictionary by their singular absolute form. Also, a variety of prefixes and/or suffixes can be attached to nouns that give extra information.

Note

Sometimes the actual classification of a noun does not match its form.

For example, a noun can appear masculine when it is actually feminine, and so on.

In Biblical Aramaic, it is very common for words to change their function within a sentence. For example, adjectives, and participles (both active and passive) often function as nouns. Also, sometimes a noun can function as an adverb or a preposition.

## Noun Common

### Summary

Common nouns are nouns that are not proper names (i.e. names of people or places).

### Article

A common noun is any noun that is not a proper name. Common noun change their form according to gender (either masculine or feminine) number (singular, dual, or plural), and state (either absolute or construct).

### Form

#### Paradigm

Noun Paradigm
word | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
masculine singular absolute | מֶלֶךְ | melekh | king
masculine singular construct | מֶלֶךְ | melekh | king of
Masculine singular determined | מַלְכָּא | malka’ | the king
feminine singular absolute | מַלְכָּה | malkah | queen
feminine singular contruct | מַלְכַּת | malkath | queen of
feminine singular determined | מַלְכְּתָא | malketha’ | the queen
masculine plural absolute | מַלְכִין | malkhiyn | kings
masculine plural construct | מַלְכֵי | malkhey | kings of
masculine plural determined | מַלְכַיָּא | malkhayya’ | the kings
feminine plural absolute | מַלְכָן | malkhan | queens
feminine plural contruct | מַלְכָת | malkhath | queens of
feminine plural determined | מַלְכָתָא | malkhatha’ | the queens

### Examples

## Noun Gentilic

### Summary

A gentilic noun is a noun that describes the ethnic identity of a person or group of people.

### Article

Biblical Aramaic expresses national, tribal, or ancestral identity using nouns that (usually) immediately follow the noun they describe. For this reason, some scholars prefer to classify gentilic nouns as gentilic adjectives, because they appear in the same position as attributive adjectives. Either classification is grammatically correct.

### Examples

## Noun Proper Name

### Summary

Proper names (usually, of people or places) are a special class of noun called “proper nouns”.

### Article

By way of example: פָּרַס (“Persia”) is a proper noun (because it is a name), but עוֹף (“bird”) is a common noun. Biblical Aramaic does not have capital letters to signify proper names. Proper nouns always appear in the absolute state and are considered 3rd person singular when used as subjects of verbs, direct objects, or referred to by personal pronouns or pronominal suffixes. Proper names can be either masculine or feminine.

## Number Dual

### Summary

The dual form of a term usually refers to a pair of items. Article ——- Nouns change their form according to their number, either singular, dual, or plural. The dual ending does not only mean “two” but usually refers to a pair of something.

Note

Dual nouns always take adjectives with a plural ending, not a dual ending.

### Form

Dual Paradigm
Form | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
Gender both dual absolute | מָאתַיִן | ma’thayin | two hundred

### Example

## Number Plural

### Summary

The plural form of a term refers to two or more of that item.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, a term with plural form usually refers to multiple persons or objects. However, Biblical Aramaic can use the plural form of a word to express many different meanings about a singular entity.

### Form

#### Nouns and adjectives

Feminine plural nouns and adjectives usually end in וֹת- (holem waw + taw).

Masculine plural nouns and adjectives usually end in ־ִים (hireq-yod + final mem).

#### Other terms

Besides nouns, a plural term can be recognized by a variety of changes to the form. These changes differ greatly from each other and are hard to sum up in a simple, helpful way. This paradigm shows a sample of the kinds of changes that signal a plural form for verbs, independent personal pronouns, the direct object marker with a pronominal suffix, and pronominal suffixes.

Independent Personal Pronoun Plural Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
first person common plural | אֲנַחְנָה | ‘enachnah | we
second person masculine plural | אַנְתּוּן (or אַנְתֹּם) | ‘antun (or ‘antom) | you
second person feminine plural | אַנְתֵּן | ‘anten | you
third person masculine plural | הִמּוֹ (also הִמּוֹן or אִנּוּן) | himmo (also himmon or ‘innun) | they
third person feminine plural | אִנִּין | ‘inniyn | they

### Function

#### Nouns marked as plural

#### Adjectives marked as plural

#### Verbs marked as plural

#### Participles marked as plural

#### Personal pronouns and suffixes marked as plural

## Number Singular

### Summary

The singular form of a term refers to a single item, or a collection of items all of the same kind.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, a word in its singular form usually refers to a single item, or to a collection of items all of the same kind. For nouns and adjectives, the singular form is the standard form found in a dictionary or lexicon.

### Form

#### Nouns and adjectives

Masculine singular nouns have no special endings.

Feminine singular nouns usually end in either ־ָה or ־ַת.

Singular Forms of Nouns/Adjectives
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular absolute | טָב | tobh | good
masculine singular construct | טָב | tobh | good of
masculine singular determined | טָבָא | tobha’ | the good
feminine singular absolute | טָבָה | tobhah | good
feminine singular construct | טָבַת | tobhath | good of
feminine singular determined | טָבְתָּא | tobhta’ | the good

#### Other terms

Besides nouns, a singular term can be recognized by a variety of changes to the form. These changes differ greatly from each other and are hard to sum up in a simple, helpful way. This paradigm shows a sample of the kinds of changes that signal a singular form for verbs, independent personal pronouns, and pronominal suffixes.

### Examples

Proper names are always singular, but can be either common singular or collective singular.

Sometimes a singular noun can refer to an entire kind of item rather than an individual entity. For example, the noun עַם “(people”) is singular and refers to an entire group of people as a single unit.

With some nouns, the singular form can be used as either a common singular or a collective singular. For example, the noun עוֹף֙ can mean “bird” or “birds”.

## Participle Active

### Summary

An `active participle` is a non-finite verbal form with active voice that can function as a verb (either a main verb or a verbal complement), an adjective, or a noun. When used verbally, an active participle most often expresses continuous or imminent action.

### Article

### Form

Pa’el Active Participle Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular absolute | מְכַתֵּב | mekhattebh | writing down
feminine singular absolute | מְכַתְּבָה | mekhattebhah | writing down
masculine plural absolute | מְכַתְּבִין | mekhattebhiyn | writing down
feminine plural absolute | מְכַתְּבָן | mekhattebhan | writing down

Haphel Active Participle Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular absolute | מְהַכְתֵּב | mehakhtebh | causing to write
feminine singular absolute | מְהַכְתְּבָה | mehakhtebhah | causing to write
masculine plural absolute | מְהַכְתְּבִין | mehakhtebhiyn | causing to write
feminine plural absolute | מְהַכְתְּבָן | mehakhtebhan | causing to write

### Function

It is helpful to classify participles according to their function in the sentence as a whole: as a verb (or verbal complement); as an adjective; or as a noun. Participles can function independently as their own grammatical entity, but they often introduce entire clauses that function either as adjectives or nouns.

#### Functions as an adjective

An `adjectival participle` immediately follows the noun it describes, and matches that noun in gender, number, and definiteness. An adjectival participle can either function as an adjective by itself or introduce an entire clause that functions as an adjective (either attributive or predicative).

#### Functions as a noun

A `nominal participle` often takes the definite article (but not always), and can either function as a noun by itself or introduce an entire clause that functions as a noun. A nominal participle will appear in the construct state either when it takes a pronominal suffix or when it is in a construct relationship with another noun in the absolute state.

## Participle Passive

### Summary

A passive participle is a non-finite verbal form with passive or reflexive voice that can function as a verb (or verbal complement), an adjective, or a noun. Passive participles most often function as either an attributive adjective or a predicative adjective.

### Article

Participles are non-finite verbal forms that can change their form based on stem formation (like verbs) as well as person, gender, state, and definiteness (like both adjectives and nouns). Participles are very flexible in their grammatical use and can function as a verbal complement, a finite main verb, an adjective, or a noun. In most cases, the context will clearly show how the participle is being used in the sentence. The meaning of a participle is usually clear, even in cases where its specific grammatical function cannot be determined precisely.

Passive participles express verbal action in either passive voice or reflexive voice. Passive voice means that the person/thing described by the participle receives the action expressed by the participle itself. Reflexive voice means that the person/thing described by the participle both performs and receives the action expressed by the participle itself.

### Form

Pe’il (passive) Participle Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular Absolute | כְּתִיב | kethiybh | being written
feminine singular Absolute | כְּתִיבָה | kethiybhah | being written
masculine plural Absolute | כְּתִיבִין | kethiybhiyn | being written
feminine plural Absolute | כְּתִיבָן | kethiybhan | being written

Hithpe’el (reflexive) Participle Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular Absolute | מִתְכְּתֵב | mithkathebh | writing himself
feminine singular Absolute | מִתְכַּתְבָה | mithkathbhah | writing herself
masculine plural Absolute | מִתְכַּתְבִין | mithkathbhiyn | writing themselves
feminine plural Absolute | מִתְכַּתְבָן | mithkathbhan | writing themselves

Pa’al (passive) Participle Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular Absolute | מְכַתַּב | mekhattabh | being written down
feminine singular Absolute | מְכַתְּבָה | mekhattebhah | being written down
masculine plural Absolute | מְכַתְּבִין | mekhattebhiyn | being written down
feminine plural Absolute | מְכַתְּבָן | mekhattebhan | being written down

Hithpa’al (reflexive) Participle Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular Absolute | מִתְכַּתַּב | mithkattabh | writing himself down
feminine singular Absolute | מִתְכַּתְּבָה | mithkattebhah | writing herself down
masculine plural Absolute | מִתְכַּתְּבִין | mithkattebhiyn | writing themselves down
feminine plural Absolute | מִתְכַּתְּבָן | mithkattebhan | writing themselves down

Hophal (passive) Participle Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular Absolute | מְהַכְתַּב | mehakhtabh | being caused to write
feminine singular Absolute | מְהַכְתְּבָה | mehakhtebhah | being caused to write
masculine plural Absolute | מְהַכְתְּבִין | mehakhtebhiyn | being caused to write
feminine plural Absolute | מְהַכְתְּבָן | mehakhtebhan | being caused to write

### Function

A passive/reflexive participle is often used as an independent grammatical entity, although it can introduce entire clauses similar to the active participle. Passive participles are generally more limited in meaning than active participles. Passive participles are governed either by the main verb of a sentence or by the context. They can express action in past time, present time, future time, or without any specified timeframe.

#### Functions as an adjective

An `adjectival participle` immediately follows the noun it describes, and matches that noun in gender, number, and definiteness. An adjectival participle can either function as an adjective by itself or introduce an entire clause that functions as an adjective (either attributive or predicative).

This is the most common use of the passive participle in Biblical Hebrew. An adjectival passive participle can function as either an attributive adjective or a predicative adjective. The context must determine whether a passive participle is functioning as a predicative adjective or as a main verb, because both appear the same in many instances.

#### Functions as a finite main verb

When functioning as a main verb, the participle is governed by the context and has the potential to be translated as past time, present time, future time, or even without a specified timeframe. A verbal participle can express continuous, imminent, habitual, or even stative action as determined by the context.

The context must determine whether a passive participle is functioning as a main verb or as a predicative adjective, because both appear the same in many instances.

#### Functions as a non-finite verbal complement

When functioning as a verbal complement, the participle is governed by the main verb of the sentence and has potential to be translated as past time, present time, or future time. A verbal participle can express continuous, imminent, habitual, or even stative action as determined by the context.

#### Functions as a noun

A `nominal participle` often takes the definite article (but not always), and can either function as a noun by itself or introduce an entire clause that functions as a noun. A nominal participle will appear in the construct state either when it takes a pronominal suffix or when it is in a construct relationship with another noun in the absolute state.

## Particle

### Summary

### Article

Particles are auxiliary words in a language that do not describe or refer to a specific object or action. Rather, particles often mark grammatical structures and/or show how other words within a sentence relate to each other. Many particles are closely related to adverbs or conjunctions.

Some particles are extremely flexible in their meaning and can also serve other functions within a sentence, especially as conjunctions or adverbs. For example, the word דִּי can function as either a relative particle or a conjunction; and there are others as well.

Note

The classification of these words (i.e. words called “particles” in this grammar) is a subject of much debate among Hebrew linguists. This is true even for particles which have a clear meaning and function. Other parsing systems may have different names for these groups of particles, may have different groupings, or may even parse an individual particle as another kind of word such as a noun, an adverb, a conjunction, or others.

Particles are sometimes paired together (or with conjunctions) to form compound conjunctions. Compound conjunctions are best understood as a single unit with its own range of meanings which may or may not overlap with the meanings of the individual particles themselves. When in doubt, it is recommended to consult and dictionary or lexicon to determine whether any particular occurrence of a particle stands alone or as part of a compound conjunction.

### Types

The parsing system used by this grammar identifies the following categories of particles:

#### Affirmation particle

These particles usually convey a sense of “affirmation of” or “addition to” some idea within the sentence. In English, they are commonly translated using words such as “yes” or “also” or “even” or “really”, etc.

#### Definite Article

#### Demonstrative particle

These particles focus the attention of the reader/listener to the word, phrase, or sentence that immediately follows. In English, they are commonly translated using words such as “See!” or “Look!” or “Behold!”, etc.

The direct object marker is used only once in Biblical Aramaic.

#### Exhortation particle

Exhortation particles are used to emphasize or strengthen a request or command. They are often left untranslated in English.

#### Interjection

These particles are exclamations of emotion. In English, they are commonly translated using words such as “Oh!” or “Woe!” or “Aha!”, etc.

#### Interrogative particle

This prefix indicates that the sentence is a question and not a statement.

#### Negative particle

These particles negate some word in the sentnce, usually a verb or adjective.

#### Relative particle

These particles introduce a relative clause or phrase, often more fully describing a preceding noun or verb.

## Particle Affirmation

### Summary

Affirmation particles express a sense of “addition to” or “affirmation of” something in a text.

### Article

Biblical Aramaic contains some particles that, used either individually or in combination, express an “affirmation of” or “addition to” some aspect of the text. These particles can have a scope as narrow as a single word or phrase, or as broad as an entire sentence or paragraph.

## Particle Demonstrative

### Summary

Demonstrative particles function to direct the attention of a listener or reader.

### Article

Biblical Aramaic has only a few demonstrative particles, with the two most common ones being הִנֵּה and הֵ֣ן. The specific function of a demonstrative particle is to draw attention to whatever immediately follows the particle, either a single word or an entire phrase. Similar to the exhortation particle, demonstrative particles are sometimes left untranslated. Demonstrative particles can stand alone or take a pronominal suffix and/or a prefixed conjunction.

### Function

#### Directs attention to a single word

#### Directs attention to a phrase

#### Directs attention to an entire sentence

## Particle Exhortation

### Summary

Exhortative particles strengthen the emotion of a command or request.

### Article

Exhortation particles are words that add emotive force to a command or request. These particles are similar to interjections but function to strengthen a specific call to action, while an interjection is used as a more general expression of emotion. Similar to demonstrative particles, exhortation particles are sometime left untranslated, depending on the specific context.

## Particle Interjection

### Summary

An interjection is a word that expresses strong emotion.

### Article

Interjections usually appear at the beginning of a sentence or clause and are grammatically disconnected from the rest of the sentence. As in many languages, interjections are often “natural sounds”, that is, vocal gestures or sounds that a person utters when experiencing certain emotions. Interjections can be used to express both positive and negative emotions.

There are several interjections in Biblical Aramaic, and none of them occur very frequently.

## Particle Interrogative

### Summary

Interrogative particles indicate that a sentence is a question. The interrogative particles מִי and מָה can also function as interrogative pronouns (“who?” and “what?”) or indefinite pronouns (“whoever” and “whatever”).

### Article

In general, interrogative particles nearly always appear at the beginning of a clause to indicate that the clause is a question and not a statement. However, interrogative particles can occur in the middle of a sentence to function as indefinite pronouns instead. As in many languages, in Biblical Aramaic a question can be asked rhetorically as a way of making a strong statement. As an example, a person might ask “How can that be?” as a way of expressing a strong sense of disbelief in something that has just been said.

#### Examples

### מִי

This is the standard personal interrogative particle and can be translated as “who?”. This particle can also function either as an interrogative pronoun when used at the beginning of a verbal clause, or as an indefinite pronoun (“whoever”) when used in the middle of a clause or sentence.

### מָה

This is the standard impersonal interrogative particle and can be translated as “what?”. This particle can also function as either an interrogative pronoun when used at the beginning of a verbal clause, or an indefinite pronoun (“whatever”) when used in the middle of a clause or sentence.

## Particle Negative

### Summary

Negative particles are terms that negate some aspect of a sentence, either an individual word or an entire phrase.

### Article

### אַיִן or אֵין

This term is used in verbless clauses to negate an entire clause or sentence. It is sometimes classified as a noun but usually appears in the verbal position of normal word order. Literally, the term is translated in English as “there is no” or “there is not”; but the English translation is often simplified to “is not” (see example below).

### לֹא

The word לֹא is the standard negative particle in Biblical Aramaic. This term often negates verbs, but it has potential to negate other kinds of words as well. In English, it is usually translated as “no” or “not”. When used with 2nd person imperfect verbs to express a negative command, this particle signifies a more emphatic command than the use of the negative particle אַל (with an imperfect verb).

### אַל

The term אַַל is almost exclusively used to negate verbs; it is also the standard particle used to negate jussive and cohortative verbs. When used with 2nd person imperfect verbs to express a negative command, this particle signifies a less emphatic command than the use of the negative particle לֹא.

## Particle Relative

### Summary

Relative particles introduce clauses or phrases that usually describe nouns but can also sometimes describe adjectives and/or verbs. In English, relative particles are usually translated as “who,” “that,” “which,” “when,” or “where.”

### Article

## Person First

### Summary

The first person form of a term refers to the person(s) writing or speaking.

### Article

In English, the first person pronouns include: “I”, “me”, or “my”, for singular; and “we”, “us”, or “our,” for plural. In Biblical Aramaic, terms which are marked for first person do not change form according to gender (masculine and feminine), but they do change form according to number (singular or plural). In Biblical Aramaic, verbs, pronouns, and pronominal suffixes can all be marked for first person.

### Form

In Biblical Aramaic, a term marked for first person can be recognized by a variety of changes to the form. These changes differ greatly from each other, so it is difficult to sum them up in a simple, helpful way. The paradigm below shows a sample of the kinds of changes that signal a first person form.

#### Paradigm

First Person Pe’al Stem Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
first person common singular perfect | כִּתְבֵת |  | I wrote
first person common plural perfect | כְּתַבְנַא |  | we wrote
first person common singular imperfect | אֶכְתֻּב |  | I will write
first person common plural imperfect | נִכְתֻּב |  | we will write

First Person Independent Personal Pronoun Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
first person common singular | אֲנָה | ‘enah | I
first person common plural | אֲנַחְנָה | ‘enachnah | we

Neither English nor Biblical Aramaic distinguish between the inclusive and the exclusive “we”. The context will determine which one is meant. See also translationAcademy and translationNotes for help if the context is not clear.

### Examples

#### Finite verb marked for first person

A finite verb (and/or verbal participle) in first person form indicates that the subject of the verb is the writer/speaker of the verb.

#### Personal pronoun marked for first person

A first person indpendent personal pronoun refers either to the writer/speaker (for singular) or to an entire group to which the writer/speaker belongs (for plural).

#### Pronominal suffix marked for first person

A first person pronominal suffix usually functions either as a personal pronoun (for verbs and prepositions) or as a possessive adjective (for nouns).

##### As attached to a verb

##### As attached to a noun

##### As attached to a preposition

## Person Second

### Summary

The second person form of a term refers to the person(s) being addressed by a writer or speaker.

### Article

In English, the second person pronouns are “you” and “your,” used for both singular and plural. In Biblical Aramaic, terms which are marked for second personal can change form according to both gender (masculine and feminine) and number (singular or plural). In Biblical Aramaic, verbs, pronouns, and pronominal suffixes can all be marked for third person.

Neither English nor Aramaic have a formal second person address. In many languages (including German, Spanish, and French), a speaker addresses God using an informal address. In some other languages, such as Dutch, a speaker addresses God using a formal address. For more information, see translationAcademy and translationNotes.

### Form

In Biblical Aramaic, a term marked for second person can be recognized by a variety of changes to the form. These changes differ greatly from each other, so it is difficult to sum them up in a simple, helpful way. The paradigm below shows a sample of the kinds of changes that signal a second person form.

#### Paradigm

Second Person Pe’al Stem Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
second person masculine singular perfect | כְּתַבְתְּ (or כּתַבְתָּ) | kethabhte (or kethabhta) | you wrote
second person feminine singular perfect | כְּתַבְתִּי | kethabhtiy | you wrote
second person masculine plural perfect | כְּתַבְתּוּן | kethabhtun | you wrote
second person feminine plural perfect | כְּתַבְתֵּן | kethabhten | you wrote
second person masculine singular imperfect | תִּכְתֻּב | tikhtubh | you will write
second person feminine singular imperfect | תִּכְתְּבִין | tikhtebhiyn | you will write
second person masculine plural imperfect | תִּכְתְּבוּן | tikhtebhun | you will write
second person feminine plural imperfect | תִּכְתְּבָן | tikhtebhan | you will write

Second Person Independent Personal Pronoun Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
second person masculine singular | אַנְתְּ (or אַנְתָּה) | ‘ante (or ‘antah) | you
second person feminine singular | אַנְתִּי | ‘antiy | you
second person masculine plural | אַנְתּוּן (or אַנְתֹּם) | ‘antun (or ‘antom) | you
second person feminine plural | אַנְתֵּן | ‘anten | you

### Examples

#### Finite verb marked for second person

A finite verb (and/or verbal participle) in second person form indicates that the subject of the verb is the person(s) being addressed by the writer/speaker.

#### Personal pronoun marked for second person

A second person independent personal pronoun refers either to the person being addressed by the writer/speaker (for singular) or to an entire group to which that person belongs (for plural).

#### Pronominal suffix marked for second person

A second person pronominal suffix usually functions either as a personal pronoun (for verbs and prepositions) or as a possessive adjective (for nouns).

##### As attached to a verb

##### As attached to a noun

##### As attached to a preposition

## Person Third

### Summary

The third person form of a term refers to a person(s) or thing(s) other than the writer/speaker and the person being addressed by the writer/speaker.

### Article

In English, the third person pronouns include: “he”, “him”, “his”, “she”, or “her”, for singular; and “they”, “them”, or “their,” for plural. In Biblical Aramaic, terms which are marked for third person can change form according to both gender (masculine and feminine) and number (singular or plural). In Biblical Aramaic, verbs, pronouns, and pronominal suffixes can all be marked for third person.

### Form

In Biblical Aramaic, a term marked for third person can be recognized by a variety of changes to the form. These changes differ greatly from each other, so it is difficult to sum them up in a simple, helpful way. The paradigm below shows a sample of the kinds of changes that signal a third person form.

#### Paradigm

Third Person Pe’al Stem Forms
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
third person masculine singular perfect | כְּתַב | kethabh | he wrote
third person feminine singular perfect | כִּתְבַת | kithbhath | she wrote
third person masculine plural perfect | כְּתַבוּ | kethabhu | they wrote
third person feminine plural perfect | כְּתַבָה | kethabhah | they wrote
third person masculine singular imperfect | יִכְתֻּב | yikhtubh | he will write
third person feminine singular imperfect | תִּכְתֻּב | tikhtubh | she will write
third person masculine plural imperfect | יִכְתְּבוּן | yikhtebhun | they will write
third person feminine plural imperfect | יִכְתְּבָן | yikhtebhan | they will write

### Examples

#### Finite verb marked for third person

A finite verb (and/or verbal participle) in third person form indicates that the subject of the verb is someone/something other than the writer/speaker or the person being addressed.

#### Personal pronoun marked for third person

A third person indpendent personal pronoun refers either to a person/thing (for singular) or group of persons/things (for plural) other than the writer/speaker and the person being addressed by the writer/speaker.

#### Pronominal suffix marked for third person

A third person pronominal suffix usually functions either as a personal pronoun (for verbs and prepositions) or as a possessive adjective (for nouns).

##### As attached to a verb

##### As attached to a noun

##### As attached to a preposition

## Preposition

### Summary

A preposition introduces a phrase that describes another word/concept within a sentence, usually a noun or a verb. However, like adverbs and particles, sometimes a prepositional phrase can describe the sentence as a whole.

### Article

Biblical Aramaic has four main prepositions: the prefix בְּ (in, at, by); the prefix לְ (to, for); the prefix כְּ (as, like); and the prefix מִ (which is a shortened form of the independent preposition מִן, meaning “from”). However, there is also a family of other prepositions in Biblical Aramaic. It is common in Biblical Aramaic for prepositions to be combined together or with a noun to form new words that have their own range of meanings (similar to compound conjunctions) that may or may not overlap with the meaning of the individual component terms.

Note

Of all the different kinds of words, prepositions are perhaps the most flexible in their meaning and are often translated in a variety of ways, or sometimes even left untranslated. For this reason, prepositions must always be translated with great sensitivity to the context of each use. A dictionary or lexicon will describe the various possible meanings of each preposition, but generally will not include a complete list of individual uses.

### Form

Prefix Preposition (with and without the definite article)
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
normal noun | כֹּל | kol | all
preposition + noun | בְּכָל | bekhal | in all
preposition + pronominal suffix | בַּהּ | bah | in her

### Types

In Biblical Aramaic, there are 11 general types of prepositions: indirect object; spatial; locative; temporal; instrumental; correlative; comparative; directional; causal; explanatory; and direct object. However, this are also other types of prepositions in Biblical Aramaic. The specific meanings of individual prepositions can be found in a dictionary or lexicon.

#### Indirect Object

A common use of the preposition לְ (also אֶל, with verbs of speaking) is to indicate the indirect object or recipient of the verbal action. When used in this way, the preposition is usually transated into English with “to” or “for”, or it can be left untranslated.

#### Spatial

Spatial prepositions are translated into English with terms such as “in”, “on”, “under”, “with”, “beside”, etc. This is a common use of the preposition בְּ.

#### Locative

Locative prepositions are translated into English with terms such as “to” or “from”, etc. This is a common use of the prepositions אֶל and מִן.

#### Temporal

Temporal prepositions are translated into English with terms such as “in”, “at”, “until”, “before”, “after”, etc. This is a common use of the preposition בְּ.

#### Instrumental

Instrumental prepositions are translated into English with terms such as “by”, “with”, “by means of”, etc. This is a common use of the preposition בְּ.

#### Correlative

Correlative prepositions are translated into English with terms such as “like”, “as”, “according to”, etc. This is the primary use of the preposition כְּ.

#### Comparative

Comparative prepositions are translated into English with terms such as “more than” or “greater than”, etc. This is a common use of the preposition מִן.

#### Directional

Directional prepositions are translated into English with terms such as “to”, “toward”, etc. This is a common use of the preposition לְ.

#### Causal

Causal prepositions are translated into English with terms such as “for” or “because”, etc. This is a secondary use of the prepositions לְ and עַל.

#### Explanatory

Explanatory prepositions are often translated into English with terms such as “as”, “for”, “to”, or it can be left untranslated. This is a common use of the preposition לְ.

#### Direct Object

A rare use of the preposition לְ is to indicate the direct object of the verb. When used in this way, the preposition is almost always left untranslated in English.

## Pronoun

### Summary

A pronoun is a word that indirectly refers to a person or a thing. For example: “John” is a proper name, “man” is a common noun, and “he” is a pronoun; but all three terms can refer to the same person named “John”.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, a pronoun can function as a noun (personal pronouns), an adjective (demonstrative pronouns), or a relative particle (relative pronouns).

### Types

Biblical Aramaic contains the following five types of pronouns.

#### Demonstrative pronoun

A demonstrative pronoun refers to a specific person(s) or thing(s) in particular. In English, the following words are demonstrative pronouns: “this”, “that”, “these”, “those”.

#### Indefinite pronoun

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to a person(s) or thing(s) in general but not to any specific person or thing in particular. In English, they are usually translated as “whoever” (in reference to persons) or “whatever” (when referring to things).

#### Interrogative pronoun

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that appears at the beginning of a clause/sentence and indicates that the clause/sentence is an interrogative question rather than an indicative statement.

#### Personal pronoun

In Biblical Aramaic, a personal pronoun is a word that indirectly refers to a particular person(s) or thing(s). In English, the following words are personal pronouns: “I”, “we”, “you”, “he”, “she”, “they”, “them”.

#### Relative pronoun

Relative pronouns are pronouns which function as a relative particle, that is, to introduce a phrase or clause that describes a noun.

## Pronoun Demonstrative

### Summary

A demonstrative pronoun refers to a specific person(s) or thing(s) in particular. In English, the following words are demonstrative pronouns: “this”, “that”, “these”, “those”.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, demonstrative pronouns can function either as nouns or adjectives. Demonstrative pronouns can change form according to gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular or plural) but NOT according to person (i.e. first, second, or third person).

### Form

#### Paradigm

Demonstrative Pronoun Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular near | דֶּנָה | denah | this
feminine singular near | דָּה | da’ | this
masculine singular far | דֵּךְ | dekh | that
feminine singular far | דָּךְ | dakh | that
both singular far | דִּכֵּן | dikken | that
common plural far | אִלֵּין (also אֵל and אֵלֶּה) | ‘illeyn (also ‘el and ‘elleh) | those
feminine plural far | אִלֵּךְ | ‘illekh | those

### Function

#### As a noun

##### Reciprocal

Demonstrative pronouns can be used to distinguish individuals within a group interacting with each other.

##### Apposition to a noun

#### As an adjective

##### as an attributive adjective

When used as an attributive adjective, a demonstrative pronoun often follows the noun, and both terms can take the definite article. Sometimes neither the noun nor the demonstrative pronoun takes the definite article. In either case, the demonstrative pronoun makes the described noun definite.

##### as a Predicative adjective

#### As a relative particle

## Pronoun Indefinite

### Summary

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to a person(s) or thing(s) in general but not to any specific person or thing in particular. In English, they are usually translated as “whoever” (in reference to persons) or “whatever” (when referring to things).

### Article

Biblical Aramaic contains two indefinite pronouns, the pronoun מִי (in reference to persons) and the pronoun מָה (in reference to things). These pronouns can also as interrogative pronoun, especially when they appear at the beginning of a clause/sentence. However, this is not a universal rule; the specific use of these pronouns must always be determined from the context. Indefinite pronouns function in a sentence almost exactly like a relative pronoun (see examples below).

### Form

Indefinite pronouns do not change their form based on number, gender, or person. However, the vowels can change depending on the vocalization of the word immediately following the pronoun.

### Examples

#### Personal indefinite pronoun (מִי)

#### Impersonal indefinite pronoun (מָה)

## Pronoun Interrogative

### Summary

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that appears at the beginning of a clause/sentence and indicates that the clause/sentence is an interrogative question rather than an indicative statement.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, a family of interrogative particles function as interrogative pronouns, and many scholars use the terms “interrogative pronouns” and “interrogative particles” interchangeably. The two most common interrogative particles are מִי (personal interrogative pronoun, referring to a person) and מָה (impersonal interrogative pronoun, referring to a thing). These two pronouns can also function as indefinite pronouns, especially when they appear in the middle of a clause/sentence rather than at the beginning. As a general rule, the particles מִי or מָה function as interrogative pronouns when they appear at the beginning of a clause/sentence, and function as indefinite pronouns when they appear in the middle of a sentence or clause. However, this is not a universal rule; the specific use of these pronouns must always be determined from the context.

## Pronoun Personal

### Summary

In Biblical Aramaic, a personal pronoun is a word that indirectly refers to a particular person(s) or thing(s). In English, the following words are personal pronouns: “I”, “we”, “you”, “he”, “she”, “they”, “them”.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, personal pronouns change form according to gender (masculine, number (feminine, and person (first, second, or third. Grammatically they are very similar to pronominal suffixes, but they stand alone rather than attaching to other kinds of words; also, they are more limited in their function.

### Form

#### Paradigm

### Function

#### As a general noun

#### As subject of a finite verb

Sometimes an independent personal pronoun appears as the subject of a finite verb even though the pronominal subject is already indicated by the verb form iteself. In these cases, the personal pronoun functions to emphasize the personal role of the subject in performing the verbal action. When used in this way, the personal pronoun is often translated reflexively in English: “myself”, “yourself”, etc.

#### As subject of a verbal participle

#### In apposition with a noun or pronominal suffix

Sometimes a personal pronoun simply repeats a noun or pronominal suffix that has appeared earlier in the sentence. The specific function of the repeated pronoun must be discerned from the context in these cases, but often the repetition expresses some kind of emphasis on the identified person(s) or thing(s) within the sentence.

## Pronoun Relative

### Summary

Relative pronouns are pronouns which function as a relative particle, that is, to introduce a phrase or clause that describes a noun.

### Article

Either term is correct. In English, the relative pronouns include: “who”, “what”, “that”, “which”, “when”, or “where”. Biblical Aramaic usually uses the relative particle דִּי to introduce a relative clause.

Note

In Biblical Aramaic, the terms “relative pronoun” and “relative particle” are two different names for the same thing.

## State Absolute

### Summary

The absolute state is the standard form of a word (noun, adjective, participle, or infinitive) in contrast to a modified form called the construct state. A word in the absolute state can take a prefix but not a suffix.

### Article

Nouns, adjectives, and participles can appear in the absolute state, the construct state, or the determined state. The most fundamental difference between these forms is that the construct form can take an attached suffix, but neither the absolute form nor the determined form can. Nouns, adjectives and participles can appear in the absolute, construct, or determined state for both masculine and feminine terms in both singular and plural forms.

Note

Many masculine singular nouns appear exactly alike in both the absolute state and the construct state.

### Form

#### Paradigm

Absolute State Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
Noun, masculine singular absolute | סוּס | sus | stallion
Noun, masculine plural absolute | סוּסִים | susim | stallions
Noun, feminine singular absolute | סוּסָה | susah | mare
Noun, feminine plural absolute | סוּסוֹת | susoth | mares

### Examples

#### Standing alone

In Biblical Aramaic, when a term stands alone and is not grammatically connected to another word, it appears in the absolute state. This category includes terms such as a subject/object of a verb or relative phrase, adjectives, adverbial nouns, etc.

#### Appearing with a prefix

The absolute state cannot take a suffix but can take a prefix, including a conjunction, preposition, definite article, or even a relative particle. For example, a term functioning as the object of a preposition can appear in the absolute state with a prefixed preposition, provided that there is no pronominal suffix. A term with both a prefixed preposition and a pronominal suffix would necessarily appear in the construct state.

#### Concluding term of a construct chain

The final word in a construct chain always appears in either the absolute state or the determined state. This term is often called the “absolute noun.” If the absolute noun in a construct chain is definite, then the entire construct chain is definite. If the absolute noun is indefinite, then the entire construct chain is indefinite.

##### Indefinite construct chain

##### Definite construct chain

## State Construct

### Summary

The contruct state is a modified form of a word (noun, adjective, participle, or infinitive) in contrast to the standard form called the absolute state. The construct state is used when a word takes a suffix or is connected to another term in a construct chain.

### Article

Nouns, adjectives, participles and infinitives can appear in the absolute state, the construct state, or the determined state. The construct state ending can take an attached suffix but neither the absolute state nor the determined state can. Nouns, adjectives and participles can appear in either the absolute, construct, or determined state for both masculine and feminine terms in both singular and plural forms.

Note

Many masculine singular nouns appear exactly alike in both the absolute state and the construct state.

The construct state serves a unique function in Biblical Aramaic to grammatically link a word to the following word(s),making a single grammatical unit called a construct chain. Words in a construct chain are often translated into English with the word “of” between them. Construct chains can consist of two words (for example, “the king of Israel”) or more than two words (for example, “the son of the king of Israel”).

### Form

For most nouns, the masculine singular form is identical to the absolute state. The masculine plural construct ending drops the final ם and changes the final hireq to a segol (i-sound to e-sound).

Usually, the feminine singular construct ending changes from a final ה to a final ת. The feminine plural construct ending is identical to the absolute state.

#### Paradigm

Construct State Examples
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
Noun, masculine singular construct | סוּס | sus | stallion of
Noun, masculine plural construct | סוּסֵי | suse | stallions of
Noun, feminine singular construct | סוּסַת | susat | mare of
Noun, feminine plural construct | סוּסוֹת | susoth | mares of

### Function

#### Appearing with a suffix

#### Forming a construct chain

Two or more terms that are gramatically linked together to form a construct chain can express a wide range of meanings. The initial term(s) in a construct chain always appears in the construct state and is called the “construct noun(s).” The final term in a construct chain always appears in the absolute state and is called the “absolute noun”. The absolute noun always determines whether a construct chain is definite or indefinite.

##### Possessive

A construct noun can indicate a person/thing possessed by the absolute noun.

##### Relational

A construct noun can indicate a kind of personal relationship with reference to the absolute noun.

##### Material

An absolute noun can indicate the substance or material of the construct noun.

##### Attributive

An absolute noun can describe the construct noun, similar to an attributive adjective.

##### Indicative

An absolute noun can indicate the specific item described by the construct noun.

##### Purpose/Result

An absolute noun can indicate an intended purpose/result for the construct noun.

##### Agent/Instrument

An absolute noun can indicate the person/thing by which the construct noun is performed.

##### Subject/object of an action

An absolute noun can indicate the person/thing that either performs or receives the action described by the construct noun.

#### Superlative

A construct noun can indicate a unique item among a series described by the absolute noun.

## Stem Formation

### Summary

The stem formation of a verb indicates both the kind of verbal action (simple, stative, causative, etc.) and the voice (active, passive, reflexive, etc.) of the verb.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, all verbs have both a stem formation (Qal, Niphal, Piel, etc.) and a conjugation (Perfect, Imperfect, Imperative, etc.). These work together like two “layers”, and each layer supplies different information about the verb. In Biblical Aramaic, there are seven major stem formations and several rare ones.

### Form

This is a brief overview on how to quickly recognize the simplest forms of each stem:

#### Qal stem

The simplest form of the verb, usually with “a” vowels (qamets or patah).

#### Niphal stem

Adds נִ (nun with hireq) to the beginning of the verb. If the form also adds a prefix (like in the prefix conjugation), the נ disappears and causes the 1st radical to double (with a daghesh).

#### Hiphil stem

Often has הִ (he with hireq) before the verb, or a patah under the letter that the form adds before the root.

#### Hophal stem

Also adds a ה before the verb, but with a qamets hatuf (or sometimes qibbuts) vowel.

#### Piel stem

Doubles the 2nd radical of the verb with a daghesh, and usually has a shewa or a hireq under the 1st radical.

#### Pual stem

Also doubles the 2nd radical but usually has a qibbuts under the 1st radical.

#### Hithpael stem

Adds הִתְ (he with hireq and taw with shewa) before the verb, and puts a qamets or patah under the 1st radical.

### Function

The following table is a brief overview of the most common stems and their most common functions.

Most Common Stem Functions
| Active Voice | Passive Voice | Reflexive Voice
--- | --- | --- | ---
Simple Action | Pe’al stem | Pe’il stem | Hithpe’el stem
Resultative Action | Pa’el stem | Pu’al stem | Hithpa’al stem
Causative Action | Haphel stem | Hophal stem |

The stem formation of a verb performs the following functions:

#### Expresses the kind of verbal action

##### Simple action

Simple action refers to a typical dynamic verb; that is, the verb describes an action being performed by the subject of the verb.

##### Stative action

Stative action refers to a typical stative verb; that is, the verb describes the subject of the verb as being in a certain state/condition.

##### Causative action

Causative action means that the subject of the verb is causing the object of the verb either to perform the verbal action (with dynamic verbs) or to be in the state described by the verb (with stative verbs). In English, causative action is expressed using the main verb “to cause” paired with the infinitive of the verbal action in view. In Biblical Aramaic, the causative nature of the verbal action is expressed by the stem formation itself with no additional verbal element.

##### Resultative action

Resultative action means that the primary focus of the verb is on the result of the verbal action.

##### Intensive action

Intensive action means that the verbal action is strengthened in some way.

#### Expresses the voice of the verb

##### Active voice

Active voice means that the subject of the verb is performing the verbal action. Most verbs are in the active voice.

##### Passive voice

Passive voice means that the subject of the verb is receiving the verbal action rather than performing the verbal action. In English, passive voice is expressed using the helping verb “to be.” In Biblical Aramaic, the passive nature of the verbal action is expressed by the stem formation of the verb itself without any helping verbs.

##### Reflexive voice

Reflexive voice means that the subject of the verb is both performing and receiving the verbal action. In English, reflexive voice is expressed using a reflexive pronoun as the object of the verb, “I tell myself”. In Biblical Aramaic, the reflexive nature of the verbal action is expressed by the stem formation of the verb itself without any additional words.

##### Middle voice

Middle voice means that the subject receives the action but also is (partially) involved in performing the action. Middle voice stands somewhere between passive voice and reflexive voice.

##### Reciprocal voice

Reciprocal voice means that multiple subjects are in view who are both performing the verbal action for another and receiving the verbal action from another. In English, reciprocal voice is expressed using the phrase “each other” as the object of the verb, “They tell each other.” In Biblical Aramaic, the reciprocal nature of the action is expressed by the stem formation of the verb itself without any additional words.

Reciprocal voice must be distinguished from reflexive voice. The phrase “They tell themselves” is reflexive: the subject “they” is a unified group and the action could be expressed reflexively for each individual as “he tells himself, and he tells himself, and she tells herself, etc.” The phrase “They tell each other” is reciprocal: each member of the group is telling something to another member of the group, and each member of the group is being told something by another member of the group.

### Rare stem formations

The following stem formations occur only rarely in Biblical Aramaic:

## Stem Hishtaphel

### Summary

The Hishtaphel is an extremely rare stem formation that is similar to the Haphel and expresses causative action in active voice.

### Article

The Hishtaphel is a rare stem formation that is unrelated to any other stem. However, this stem is similar to the Haphel, expressing causative action in active voice.

### Form

#### Paradigm

Hishtaphel Paradigm
Conjugation | Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Perfect | masculine singular third person | הִשְׁתַּחֲוָה | hishtahawah | he worshipped
Imperfect | masculine singular third person | יִשְׁתַּחֲוֶה | yishtahaweh | he will worship
Sequential Imperfect | masculine singular third person | וַיִּשְׁתַּחוּ | wayyishtahu | (and) he worshipped
Imperative | masculine singular | הִשְׁתַּחֲוִי | hishtahawi | you must worship
Infinitive Construct | — | הִשְׁתַּחֲוֹת | hishtahawoth | worship
Participle | masculine singular absolute | מִשְׁתַּחֲוֶה | mishtahaweh | worshipping

### Examples

## Stem Hophal

### Summary

The Hophal stem is the passive form of the Haphel, and it generally expresses the passive voice of the meaning of a verb in the Haphel stem.

### Article

The Hophal stem is the passive form of the Haphel stem formation in Biblical Aramaic. The Hophal stem is usually indicated by either a הָ or הֻ prefix to the Verb. (The ה changes in the participle and Imperfect forms.) The Hophal stem usually expresses the passive voice of the meaning of a verb in the Haphel stem. In English, passive voice is expressed using the helping verb “to be.” In Biblical Aramaic, the passive nature of the verbal action is expressed by the Hophal form of the verb itself without any helping verbs.

Note

It is recommended to always check a dictionary or lexicon for the meaning of a specific verb, because this stem may express many different kinds of action in different contexts.

### Form

#### Paradigm

Note

every form in the Hophal can have either a qamets hatuf or a qibbuts under the first letter (so הָ or הֻ). Here the qamets hatuf is used throughout.

Hophal Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | הֻכְתַּב (or הָכְתַּב) | hukhtabh (or hokhtabh) | he was caused to write
feminine singular third person | הֻכְתְּבַת | hukhtebhath | she was caused to write
masculine singular second person | הֻכְתַּבְתָּ | hukhtabhta | you were caused to write
feminine singular second person | הֻכְתַּבְתִּי | hukhtabhtiy | you were caused to write
common singular first person | הֻכְתְּבֵת | hukhtebheth | I was caused to wtie
masculine plural third person | הֻכְתַּבוּ | hukhtabhu | they were caused to write
feminine plural third person | הֻכְתַּבָה | hukhtabhah | they were caused to write
masculine plural second person | הֻכְתַּבְתּוּן | hukhtabhtun | you were caused to write
feminine plural second person | הֻכְתַּבְתֵּן | hukhtabhten | you were caused to write
common plural first person | הֻכְתַּבְנָא | hukhtabhna’ | we were caused to write

Hophal Participle (passive voice) Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular | מְכַתַּב | mekhattabh | being caused to write
feminine singular | מְכַתְּבָה | mekhattebhah | being caused to write
masculine plural | מְכַתְּבִין | mekhattebhiyn | being caused to write
feminine plural | מְכַתְּבָן | mekhattebhan | being caused to write

### Function

#### Expresses the passive voice of the Hiphil stem

For most verbs that appear in Haphel stem in Biblical Aramaic, the Hophal stem expresses the same kind of simple or causative action as the Hiphil stem, but in passive voice. A good example is the verb בּוֹא. In the Pe’al stem, the verb בּוֹא means “to come” or “to go” (:ref:simple<stem-action-simple>` action, active voice). But in the Haphel stem, the verb בּוֹא means “to bring” (causative action, active voice). Thus, in the Hophal stem, the verb בּוֹא means “to be brought” (causative action, passive voice).

The Hophal stem of בּוֹא, meaning “to be brought”; in the Haphel stem, means “to bring”, for example:

The Hophal stem of נָגַד, meaning “to be declared”; in the Haphel stem, means “to declare”, for example:

## Stem Pu’al

### Summary

The Pu’al stem is the passive form of the Pa’el, and it generally expresses the passive voice of the meaning of a verb in the Pa’el stem.

### Article

The Pu’al stem is the passive form of the Pa’el formation in Biblical Aramaic. The Pu’al stem is usually indicated by a daghesh in the middle consonsant of the Verb and a qibbuts vowel under the first consonant. Generally speaking, the Pu’al stem expresses the passive voice of the meaning of a verb in the Pa’el stem. In English, passive action is expressed using the helping verb “to be.” In Biblical Aramaic, the passive nature of the verbal action is expressed by the Pu’al form of the verb itself without any helping verbs.

Note

It is recommended to always check a dictionary or lexicon for the meaning of a specific verb, because this stem may express many different kinds of action in different contexts.

### Form

#### Paradigm

Pu’al Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | כֻּתַּב | kuttabh | he/it was written down
feminine singular third person | כֻּתְּבַת | kuttebhath | she/it was written down
masculine singular second person | כֻּתַּבְתָּ | kuttabhta | you were written down
feminine singular second person | כֻּתַּבְתִּי | kuttabhtiy | you were written down
common singular first person | כֻּתְּבֵת | kuttebheth | I was written down
masculine plural third person | כֻּתַּבוּ | kuttabhu | they were written down
feminine plural third person | כֻּתַּבַה | kuttabhah | they were written down
masculine plural second person | כֻּתַּבְתּוּן | kuttabhtun | you were written down
feminine plural second person | כֻּתַּבְתֵּן | kuttabhten | you were written down
common plural first person | כֻּתַּבְנָא | kuttabhna’ | we were written down

Pu’al Participle (passive voice) Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular | מְכַתַּב | mekhattabh | being written down
feminine singular | מְכַתְּבָה | mekhattebhah | being written down
masculine plural | מְכַתְּבִין | mekhattebhiyn | being written down
feminine plural | מְכַתְּבָן | mekhattebhan | being written down

#### Function

##### Expresses the passive voice of the Pa’el stem

For most verbs that appear in both the Pa’el and Pu’al stems in Biblical Aramaic, the Pu’al stem expresses the same kind of action as the Piel stem (usually resultative) but in passive voice. A good example is the verb בָּקַע. In the Pe’al stem, the verb בָּקַע means “to cut open” or “to break open” (simple action, active voice). But in the Pa’el stem, the verb בָּקַע means “to rip open” (intensive action, active voice). Thus, in the Pu’al stem, the verb בָּקַע means “to be ripped open” (intensive action, passive voice).

## Suffix

### Summary

A suffix consists of one or more letters added to the end of a word. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, participles, infinitives and even some particles can take suffixes in Biblical Aramaic.

### Article

Note

These suffixes should not be confused with the prefixes and suffixes that are added to finite verbs to form verbal conjugations, although certain forms appear very similar.

## Suffix Pronominal

### Summary

Pronominal suffixes refer to a person(s) or thing(s) and can be attached to nouns, verbs, prepositions, participles, infinitives, even some particles. A pronominal suffix nearly always functions as either a personal pronoun (for example, “I” or “me” in English) or a possessive pronoun (for example, “my” or “mine” in English).

### Article

A pronominal suffix refers to a person(s) or a thing(s) and can change form according to gender (masculine or feminine), number (singular or plural), and person (first, second, or third person). These various suffixes look quite similar to their corresponding personal pronouns. Only nouns in the construct state can take a pronominal suffix.

Note

In Biblical Aramaic, a noun always becomes definite when a pronominal suffix is attached to it.

### Form

#### Paradigm

Pronominal Suffix with a Singular Noun
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
common singular first person | סוּסִי | susi | my horse
masculine singular second person | סוּסְךָ | suskha | your horse
feminine singular second person | סוּסֵךְ | susekh | your horse
masculine singular third person | סוּסוֹ / סוּסֹה / סוּסֵהוּ | suso / susoh / susehu | his horse
feminine singular third person | סוּסהָ / סוּסָהּ | susha / susah | her horse
common plural first person | סוּסֵנוּ | susenu | our horse
masculine plural second person | סוּסְכֶם | susekhem | your horse
feminine plural second person | סוּסְכֶן | susekhen | your horse
masculine plural third person | סוּסְהֶם / סוּסָם | susehem / susam | their horse
feminine plural third person | סוּסְהֶן / סוּסָן | susehen / susan | their horse

Pronominal Suffix with a Plural Noun
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
common singular first person | סוּסַי | susay | my horses
masculine singular second person | סוּסֶיךָ | susekha | your horses
feminine singular second person | סוּסַיִךְ | susayikh | your horses
masculine singular third person | סוּסָיו | susayw | his horses
feminine singular third person | סוּסֶיהָ | suseyha | her horses
common plural first person | סוּסֵינוּ | susenu | our horses
masculine plural second person | סוּסֵיכֶם | susekhem | your horses
feminine plural second person | סוּסֵיכֶן | susekhen | your horses
masculine plural third person | סוּסֵיהֶם | susehem | their horses
feminine plural third person | סוּסֵיהֶן | susehen | their horses

### Function

#### Attached to a noun

When attached to a noun, a pronominal suffix functions as a personal pronoun in a construct relationship with the noun to which it is attached. Very often, the pronoun functions as a possessive attributive adjective indentifying the person(s) or thing(s) in possession of that noun.

#### Attached to a finite verb

A pronominal suffix can be attached to any finite verb conjugation to indicate the direct object of the verb. In these cases, the pronominal suffix always functions as a personal pronoun.

#### Attached to a preposition

Similar to verbs, a pronominal suffix attached to a preposition is always the object of that preposition, functioning as a personal pronoun.

#### Attached to a participle

## Verb

### Summary

A `verb` is the grammatical entity that describes the subject of a sentence. A verb can describe either an action that the subject performs or the state (or condition) of the subject.

### Article

A verb is a word in a sentence that describes either an action by the subject of a sentence, or the subject itself. Therefore, the verb is often the most important word in understanding a sentence or a clause.

### Form

In Biblical Aramaic, the root of a verb consists of three consonants, sometimes called the tri-literal (meaning “three letters”) root. In “strong” verbs, the three root consonants always stay the same and are easy to recognize, but “weak” verbs have one or more consonants that disappear in certain forms.

Verbs in Biblical Aramaic change form according to both conjugation (Perfect, Imperfect, Infinitive Absolute, etc.) and stem formation (Pe’al, Haphel, etc.). Generally speaking, changes in verb forms happen by adding prefixes/suffixes, by changing the vowels, or both. These changes in form show the stem formation of a verb with its conjugation, which includes the person (first, second, or third), the gender (masculine or feminine), the number (singular or plural), and sometimes the state (absolute or construct). The person, gender, and number of a verb always agree with the subject.

Unlike English (but similar to other languages like Spanish), verbs in Biblical Aramaic do not require a separate personal pronoun if the subject is not identified; this is because the form of the verb itself includes the subject. A pronominal suffix attached to a verb can function as its object.

#### Finite verbs

`Finite verbs` are verbs that have a subject and do not require any verbal complement to form a complete sentence.

The finite verb forms in Biblical Aramaic include the Perfect, Imperfect, and Imperative.

#### Non-finite verbs

Properly speaking, `non-finite verbs` are verbal complements that require a finite verb to form a complete sentence.

The non-finite verb forms in Biblical Aramaic include the Infinitive and the participles (both active and passive). Non-finite verbs can sometimes describe an action or an event in such a way that the word functions like a noun.

Note

In Biblical Aramaic, the non-finite verb forms are sometimes used as finite verbs, and the imperfect form is sometimes used as a non-finite verb.

### Types

Grammarians often distinguish between different types of verbs. When considering the best way to translate a sentence, it is helpful to understand what type of verb is being used in any given instance.

#### Dynamic (or action) verbs

A `dynamic verb` describes a subject performing an action. The subject is doing something.

#### Stative (or non-action) verbs

Rather than describing a specific action, a `stative verb` describes the subject’s state of being (the way the subject is). The subject is not doing anything.

#### Transitive verbs

A transitive verb is a dynamic verb that requires an object that receives the verbal action. A sentence with a transitive verb is not complete without the object. Stative verbs are never transitive.

#### Intransitive verbs

An `intransitive verb` is a verb that does NOT require an object to receive the verbal action. A sentence with an intransitive verb is complete without an object. Dynamic verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, but stative verbs are always intransitive.

#### Linking verbs

A `linking verb` is a verb that either equates two nouns, or equates a noun and an adjective. A linking verb can be implied by the context in all three biblical languages: Biblical Hebrew, Biblical Aramaic, and Koiné Greek. This is not the case in English, however. In English, linking verbs must be explicitly expressed. Therefore, in many sentences a linking verb must be supplied when translating the Bible into English.

#### Helping verbs

Helping verbs are extra verbs that “help” express the meaning of the main verb. Biblical Aramaic does not use helping verbs, but English does. Often, it is necessary to supply a helping verb in English to express the meaning of a Aramaic verb.

##### helping verbs in questions and negations

The following example in English adds the helping verb “have” (not present in the Aramaic text):

The following example in English adds the helping verb “did” (not present in the Aramaic text):

##### helping verbs to express possibility or desirability

English uses helping verbs to express varying degrees of possiblity or desirability of verbs. This includes a vast range from strong possibility (He **can* do this* or He **would* do this*) to weak possibility (He **might* do this* or He **could* do this*) or from strong desirability (He **should* do this* or *Let him do this*) to weak desirability (*May he do this* or He **wants* to do this*). In Biblical Aramaic, this sense of possibility or desirability is implied by the context and already present in the form of the verb itself.

## Verb Imperative

### Summary

An imperative verb is used to express direct commands, instructions, and other similar actions with varying degrees of desirability as determined by the context.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic, the Imperative form is used to express positive commands or instructions directed to another person(s). Thus, Imperative verbs always appear only in the second person. Imperative verbs can express actions with varying degrees of desirability, including instructions, requests, permissions, invitations, assurances, wishes, etc. The context must determine the nuanced meaning of each instance of an Imperative verb.

Biblical Aramaic does not use the Imperative form to express negative commands. Rather, prohibitions are expressed with the Imperfect form.

### Form

Pe’al Imperative Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular | כְּתֻב | kethub | Write!
feminine singular | כְּתֻבִי | kethubhiy | Write!
masculine plural | כְּתֻבוּ | kethubhu | Write!
feminine plural | כְּתֻבָה | kethubhah | Write!

Pa’el Imperative Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular | כַּתֵּב | kattebh | Write down!
feminine singular | כַּתִּבִי | kattibhiy | Write down!
masculine plural | כַּתִּבוּ | kattibhu | Write down!
feminine plural | כַּתִּבָה | kattibhah | Write down!

Haphel Imperative Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular | הַכְתֵּב | hakhtebh | Cause to write!
feminine singular | הַכְתִּבִי | hakhtibhiy | Cause to write!
masculine plural | הַכְתִּבוּ | hakhtibhu | Cause to write!
feminine plural | הַכְתִּבָה | hakhtibhah | Cause to write!

### Function

#### Direct commands or instructions

#### Actions of greater or lesser desirability

## Verb Imperfect

### Summary

An Imperfect verb is used generally to indicate an action that is not complete, or an action that either occurs in the present or will occur in the future. However, an Imperfect verb can also be used to describe other kinds of actions.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic the Imperfect conjugation is used generally to describe actions that are not completed or actions that occur in the present or future. However, the Imperfect conjugation is also used to describe several other kinds of actions as determined by the context. These include frequentive or durative actions, negative commands, indirect commands, potential actions, and actions of greater or lesser desirability (similar to Jussive verbs and Cohortative verbs).

The normal Imperfect conjugation with the conjunction waw (וְ “and”) as a prefix is different from the Sequential Imperfect, which utilizes a specialized form of the conjunction and contains a different meaning. Sometimes a verb with Imperfect conjugation occurs within a clause after another finite verb (as in Gen 49:27 below, supplying the linking verb to be). In these cases, the context must determine whether the Imperfect verb is functioning as a non-finite verb to complement the preceding main verb, or whether it is functioning as a second main verb.

### Form

Pe’al Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יִכְתֻּב | yikhtubh | he will write
feminine singular third person | תִּכְתֻּב | tikhtubh | she will write
masculine singular second person | תִּכְתֻּב | tikhtubh | you will write
feminine singular second person | תִּכְתְּבִין | tikhtebhiyn | you will write
common singular first person | אֶכְתֻּב | ‘ekhtubh | I will write
masculine plural third person | יִכְתְּבוּן | yikhtebhun | they will write
feminine plural third person | יִכְתְּבָנ | yikhtebhan | they will write
masculine plural second person | תִּכְתְּבוּן | tikhtebhun | you will write
feminine plural second person | תִּכְתְּבָן | tikhtebhan | you will write
common plural first person | נִכְתֻּב | nikhtubh | we will write

Hithpe’el Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יִתְכְּתֵב (or יִתְכְּתִב) | yithkethebh (or yithkethibh) | he will write himself
feminine singular third person | תִּתְכְּתֵב | tithkethebh | she will write herself
masculine singular second person | תִּתְכְּתֵב | tithkethebh | you will write yourself
feminine singular second person | תִּתְכַּתְבִין | tithkathbhiyn | you will write yourself
common singular first person | אֶתְכְּתֵב | ‘ethkethebh | I will write myself
masculine plural third person | יִתְכַּתְבוּן | yithkathbhun | they will write themselves
feminine plural third person | יִתְכַּתְבָן | yithkathbhan | they will write themselves
masculine plural second person | תִּתְכַּתְבוּן | tithkathbhun | you will write yourselves
feminine plural second person | תִּתְכַּתְבָן | tithkathbhan | you will write yourselves
common plural first person | נִתְכְּתֵב | nithkethebh | we will write ourselves

Pa’el Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יְכַתֵּב (or יְכַתִּב) | yekhattebh (or yekhattibh) | he will write down
feminine singular third person | תְּכַתֵּב | tekhattebh | she will write down
masculine singular second person | תְּכַתֵּב | tekhattebh | you will write down
feminine singular second person | תְּכַתְּבִין | tekhattebhiyn | you will write down
common singular first person | אֲכַתֵּב | ‘ekhattebh | I will write down
masculine plural third person | יְכַתְּבוּן | yekhattebhun | they will write down
feminine plural third person | יְכַתְּבָן | yekhattebhan | they will write down
masculine plural second person | תְּכַתְּבוּן | tekhattebhun | you will write down
feminine plural second person | תְּכַתְּבָן | thekhattebhan | you will write down
common plural first person | נְכַתֵּב | nekhattebh | we will write down

Hithpa’al Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יִתְכַּתַּב | yithkattabh | he will write himself down
feminine singular third person | תִּתְכַּתַּב | tithkattabh | she will write herself down
masculine singular second person | תִּתְכַּתַּב | tithkattabh | you will write yourself down
feminine singular second person | תִּתְכַּתְּבִין | tithkattebhiyn | you will write yourself down
common singular first person | אֶתְכַּתַּב | ‘ethkattabh | I will write myself down
masculine plural third person | יִתְכַּתְּבוּן | yithkattebhun | they will write themselves down
feminine plural third person | יִתְכַּתְּבָן | yithkattebhan | they will write themselves down
masculine plural second person | תִּתְכַּתְּבוּן | tithkattebhun | you will write themselves down
feminine plural second person | תִּתְכַּתְּבָן | tithkattebhan | you will write yourselves down
common plural first person | נִתְכַּתַּב | nithkattabh | we will write ourselves down

Haphel Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יְהַכְתֵּב (or יְהַכְתִּב) | yehakhtebh | he will cause to write
feminine singular third person | תְּהַכְתֵּב | tehakhtebh | she will cause to write
masculine singular second person | תְּהַכְתֵּב | tehakhtebh | you will cause to write
feminine singular second person | תְּהַכְתְּבִין | tehakhbebhiyn | you will cause to write
common singular first person | אֲהַכְתֵּב | ‘ehakhtebh | I will cause to write
masculine plural third person | יְהַכְתְּבוּן | yehakhtebhun | they will cause to write
feminine plural third person | יְהַכְתְּבָן | yehakhtebhan | they will cause to write
masculine plural second person | תְּהַכְתְּבוּן | tehakhtebhun | you will cause to write
feminine plural second person | תְּהַכְתְּבָן | tehakhtebhan | you will cause to write
common plural first person | נְהַכְתֵּב | nehakhtebh | we will cause to write

### Function

The Imperfect conjugation can indicate any of the following kinds of actions:

#### Actions in future time

#### Actions in present time

#### Frequentive or durative actions

These may be in past time, present time, future time, or without a specified time frame.

#### Direct negative commands (with לֹא to express an emphatic prohibition)

#### Potential actions

#### Actions of greater or lesser desirability

These may include instructions, requests, permissions, invitations, assurances, wishes, etc.

## Verb Jussive

### Summary

A jussive verb is used to express direct negative commands, indirect commands, and other similar actions with varying degrees of desirability as determined by the context. In Biblical Aramaic, the Jussive form is nearly indistinguishable from the Imperfect form.

### Article

A Jussive verb does not carry the full force of a command (“He must do this!”), but it conveys a stronger meaning than a simple suggestion or statement of possibilty (“He could do this.”). The meaning is somewhere in the middle. In English, a Jussive is often translated with the helping verb “may” or “let,” depending on the context (”May he do this!” or “Let him do this!”). Thus, the Jussive verb functions as an indirect command. The reader must examine the context to determine the strength of desirability being expressed in each specific instance.

Biblical Aramaic does not use the Imperative form to express negative commands. Rather, negative commands are expressed using the Jussive form. In cases where the Jussive form is being used to express a negative command, the verb will appear in a 2nd person form rather than a 3rd person form. When used in this way, the Jussive form takes the negative particle אַל in nearly all instances.

Pe’al Jussive/Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יִכְתֻּב | yikhtubh | let him write
feminine singular third person | תִּכְתֻּב | tikhtubh | let her write
masculine singular second person | תִּכְתֻּב | tikhtubh | let you write
feminine singular second person | תִּכְתְּבִין | tikhtebhiyn | let you write
common singular first person | אֶכְתֻּב | ‘ekhtubh | let me write
masculine plural third person | יִכְתְּבוּן | yikhtebhun | let them write
feminine plural third person | יִכְתְּבָנ | yikhtebhan | let them write
masculine plural second person | תִּכְתְּבוּן | tikhtebhun | let you write
feminine plural second person | תִּכְתְּבָן | tikhtebhan | let you write
common plural first person | נִכְתֻּב | nikhtubh | let us write

Hithpe’el Jussive/Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יִתְכְּתֵב (or יִתְכְּתִב) | yithkethebh (or yithkethibh) | let him write himself
feminine singular third person | תִּתְכְּתֵב | tithkethebh | let her write herself
masculine singular second person | תִּתְכְּתֵב | tithkethebh | let you write yourself
feminine singular second person | תִּתְכַּתְבִין | tithkathbhiyn | let you write yourself
common singular first person | אֶתְכְּתֵב | ‘ethkethebh | let me write myself
masculine plural third person | יִתְכַּתְבוּן | yithkathbhun | let them write themselves
feminine plural third person | יִתְכַּתְבָן | yithkathbhan | let them write themselves
masculine plural second person | תִּתְכַּתְבוּן | tithkathbhun | let you write yourselves
feminine plural second person | תִּתְכַּתְבָן | tithkathbhan | let you write yourselves
common plural first person | נִתְכְּתֵב | nithkethebh | let us write ourselves

Pa’el Jussive/Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יְכַתֵּב (or יְכַתִּב) | yekhattebh (or yekhattibh) | let him write down
feminine singular third person | תְּכַתֵּב | tekhattebh | let her write down
masculine singular second person | תְּכַתֵּב | tekhattebh | let you write down
feminine singular second person | תְּכַתְּבִין | tekhattebhiyn | let you write down
common singular first person | אֲכַתֵּב | ‘ekhattebh | let me write down
masculine plural third person | יְכַתְּבוּן | yekhattebhun | let them write down
feminine plural third person | יְכַתְּבָן | yekhattebhan | let them write down
masculine plural second person | תְּכַתְּבוּן | tekhattebhun | let you write down
feminine plural second person | תְּכַתְּבָן | thekhattebhan | let you write down
common plural first person | נְכַתֵּב | nekhattebh | let us write down

Hithpa’al Jussive/Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יִתְכַּתַּב | yithkattabh | let him write himself down
feminine singular third person | תִּתְכַּתַּב | tithkattabh | let her write herself down
masculine singular second person | תִּתְכַּתַּב | tithkattabh | let you write yourself down
feminine singular second person | תִּתְכַּתְּבִין | tithkattebhiyn | let you write yourself down
common singular first person | אֶתְכַּתַּב | ‘ethkattabh | let me write myself down
masculine plural third person | יִתְכַּתְּבוּן | yithkattebhun | let them write themselves down
feminine plural third person | יִתְכַּתְּבָן | yithkattebhan | let them write themselves down
masculine plural second person | תִּתְכַּתְּבוּן | tithkattebhun | let you write yourselves down
feminine plural second person | תִּתְכַּתְּבָן | tithkattebhan | let you write yourselves down
common plural first person | נִתְכַּתַּב | nithkattabh | let us write ourselves down

Haphel Jussive/Imperfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | יְהַכְתֵּב (or יְהַכְתִּב) | yehakhtebh | let him cause to write
feminine singular third person | תְּהַכְתֵּב | tehakhtebh | let her cause to write
masculine singular second person | תְּהַכְתֵּב | tehakhtebh | let you cause to write
feminine singular second person | תְּהַכְתְּבִין | tehakhbebhiyn | let you cause to write
common singular first person | אֲהַכְתֵּב | ‘ehakhtebh | let me cause to write
masculine plural third person | יְהַכְתְּבוּן | yehakhtebhun | let them cause to write
feminine plural third person | יְהַכְתְּבָן | yehakhtebhan | let them cause to write
masculine plural second person | תְּהַכְתְּבוּן | tehakhtebhun | let you cause to write
feminine plural second person | תְּהַכְתְּבָן | tehakhtebhan | let you cause to write
common plural first person | נְהַכְתֵּב | nehakhtebh | let us cause to write

### Examples

Example: JER 10:11
יֵאבַ֧דוּ מֵֽאַרְעָ֛א
ye’bhadhu me’ar’a’
let-them-perish from-the-earth
they will perish from the earth

Example: DAN 4:19
חֶלְמָ֤א וּפִשְׁרֵא֙ אַֽל־יְבַהֲלָ֔ךְ
chelema’ uphishre’ ‘al-yebhahelakh
the-dream and-the-interpretation not_ let-it-trouble-you
do not let the dream or its interpretation alarm you

Example: DAN 5:10
אַֽל־יְבַהֲלוּךְ֙ רַעְיוֹנָ֔ךְ
‘al-yebhahelukh ra’yonakh
not_ let-it-trouble-you your-thoughts
Do not let your thoughts trouble you

Example: DAN 5:10
וְזִיוָ֖יךְ אַל־יִשְׁתַּנּֽוֹ
veziyvaykh ‘al-yishtanno
and-your-countenance not_ let-it-be-changed
and do not let the look on your face change

Example: DAN 5:12
כְּעַ֛ן דָּנִיֵּ֥אל יִתְקְרֵ֖י
ke’an daniyye’l yithqerey
now Daniel let-him-be-called
Now call for Daniel

## Verb Perfect

### Summary

A Perfect verb usually expresses a completed action in the past. However, the Perfect conjugation can also be used to describe other kinds of actions.

### Article

In Biblical Aramaic a Perfect verb is normally used to describe actions that have occurred in the past or actions that are seen as completed (even in present or future time). However, the Perfect conjugation is also used to describe a variety of other kinds of actions. Thus, a Perfect verb has the potential to be translated with the past tense, the present tense, or even the future tense. The context must determine the proper meaning for each instance of a Perfect verb.

When the conjunction waw (וְ “and”) is added to the Perfect conjugation as a prefix, this can indicate either the Perfect copulative or the Sequential Perfect. The meaning of the verb is different in either case, and the context must be carefully considered to determine if it is a Perfect copulative verb or a Sequential Perfect verb.

### Form

Pe’al Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | כְּתַב | ketabh | he wrote
feminine singular third person | כִּתְבַת | kithbhath | she wrote
masculine singular second person | כְּתַבְתְּ (or כְּתַבְתָּ) | kithabhte (or kethabhta) | you wrote
feminine singular second person | כְּתַבְתִּי | kethabhtiy | you wrote
common singular first person | כִּתְבֵת | kithbheth | I wrote
masculine plural third person | כְּתַבוּ | kethabhu | they wrote
feminine plural third person | כְּתַבָה | kethabhah | they wrote
masculine plural second person | כְּתַבְתּוּן | kethabhtun | you wrote
feminine plural second person | כְּתַבְתֵּן | kethabhten | you wrote
common plural first person | כְּתַבְנָא | kethabhna’ | we wrote

Pe’il Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | כְּתִיב | kethiybh | he/it is written
feminine singular third person | כְּתִיבַת | kethiybhath | she/it is written
masculine singular second person | כְּתִיבְתָּ | kethiybhta | you are written
feminine singular second person | כְּתִיבְתִּי | kethiybhtiy | you are written
common singular first person | כְּתִיבֵת | kethiybheth | I am written
masculine plural third person | כְּתִיבוּ | kethiybhu | they are written
feminine plural third person | כְּתִיָה | kethiyah | they are written
masculine plural second person | כְּתִיבְתּוּן | kethiybhtun | you are written
feminine plural second person | כְּתִיבְתֵּן | kethiybhten | you are written
common plural first person | כְּתִיבְנָא | kethiybhna’ | we are written

Hithpe’el Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | הִתְכְּתֵב (or הִתְכְּתִב) | hithkethebh | he wrote himself
feminine singular third person | הִתְכַּתְבַת | hithkathbhath | she wrote herself
masculine singular second person | הִתְכְּתֵבְתְּ (or הִתְכְּתֵבְתָּ) | hithkethebhte (or hithkethebhta) | you wrote yourself
feminine singular second person | הִתְכְּתֵבְתִּי | hithkethebhtiy | you wrote yourself
common singular first person | הִתְכַּתְבֵת | hithkathbheth | I wrote myself
masculine plural third person | הִתְכְּתִבוּ | hithkethibhu | they wrote themselves
feminine plural third person | הִתְכְּתִבָה | hithkethibhah | they wrote themselves
masculine plural second person | הִתְכְּתֵבְתּוּן | hithkethebhtun | you killed yourselves
feminine plural second person | הִתְכְּתֵבְתֵּן | hithkethebhten | you killed yourselves
common plural first person | הִתְכְּתֵבְנָא | hithkethebhna’ | we killed ourselves

Pa’el Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | כַּתֵּב (or כַּתִּב) | kattebh (or kattibh) | he wrote down
feminine singular third person | כַּתְּבַת | kattebhath | she wrote down
masculine singular second person | כַּתֵּבְתְּ | kattebhte | you wrote down
feminine singular second person | כַּתֵּבְתִּי | kattebhtiy | you wrote down
common singular first person | כַּתְּבֵת | kattebheth | I wrote down
masculine plural third person | כַּתִּבוּ | kattibhu | they wrote down
feminine plural third person | כַּתִּבָה | kattibhah | they wrote down
masculine plural second person | כַּתֵּבְתּוּן | kattebhtun | you wrote down
feminine plural second person | כַּתֵּבְתֵּן | kattebhten | you wrote down
common plural first person | כַּתֵּבְנָא | kattebhna’ | we wrote down

Pu’al Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | כֻּתַּב | kuttabh | he/it was written down
feminine singular third person | כֻּתְּבַת | kuttebhath | she/it was written down
masculine singular second person | כֻּתַּבְתָּ | kuttabhta | you were written down
feminine singular second person | כֻּתַּבְתִּי | kuttabhtiy | you were written down
common singular first person | כֻּתְּבֵת | kuttebheth | I was written down
masculine plural third person | כֻּתַּבוּ | kuttabhu | they were written down
feminine plural third person | כֻּתַּבַה | kuttabhah | they were written down
masculine plural second person | כֻּתַּבְתּוּן | kuttabhtun | you were written down
feminine plural second person | כֻּתַּבְתֵּן | kuttabhten | you were written down
common plural first person | כֻּתַּבְנָא | kuttabhna’ | we were written down

Hithpa’al Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | הִתְכַּתַּב | hithkattabh | he wrote himself down
feminine singular third person | הִתְכַּתְּבַת | hithkattkbhath | she wrote herself down
masculine singular second person | הִתְכַּתַּבְתְּ | hithkattabhte | you wrote yourself down
feminine singular second person | הִתְכַּתַּבְתִּי | hithkattabhtiy | you wrote yourself down
common singular first person | הִתְכַּתְּבֵת | hithkattebheth | I wrote myself down
masculine plural third person | הִתְכַּתַּבוּ | hithkattabhu | they wrote themselves down
feminine plural third person | הִתְכַּתַּבָה | hithkattabhah | they wrote themselves down
masculine plural second person | הִתְכַּתַּבְתּוּן | hithkattabhtun | you wrote yourselves down
feminine plural second person | הִתְכַּתַּבְתֵּן | hithkattabhten | you wrote yourselves down
common plural first person | הִתְכַּתַּבְנָא | hithkattabhna’ | we wrote ourselves down

Hophal Perfect Paradigm
Parsing | Aramaic | Transliteration | Gloss
--- | --- | --- | ---
masculine singular third person | הֻכְתַּב (or הָכְתַּב) | hukhtabh (or hokhtabh) | he was caused to write
feminine singular third person | הֻכְתְּבַת | hukhtebhath | she was caused to write
masculine singular second person | הֻכְתַּבְתָּ | hukhtabhta | you were caused to write
feminine singular second person | הֻכְתַּבְתִּי | hukhtabhtiy | you were caused to write
common singular first person | הֻכְתְּבֵת | hukhtebheth | I was caused to wtie
masculine plural third person | הֻכְתַּבוּ | hukhtabhu | they were caused to write
feminine plural third person | הֻכְתַּבָה | hukhtabhah | they were caused to write
masculine plural second person | הֻכְתַּבְתּוּן | hukhtabhtun | you were caused to write
feminine plural second person | הֻכְתַּבְתֵּן | hukhtabhten | you were caused to write
common plural first person | הֻכְתַּבְנָא | hukhtabhna’ | we were caused to write

### Function

The Perfect conjugation can indicate any of the following kinds of actions:

#### Completed actions in past time

The Perfect conjugation can be translated as simple past action (“he did”), present completed action (“he has done”), or past completed action (“he had done”).

#### Completed actions in present/future time

#### Imaginary actions

This is an action described as a hypothetical situation.

#### Stative actions (describing a state or condition)

This kind of action describes a state or a condition, often (but not always) with a passive stem formation.

#### Performative actions

This is an action that is performed by speaking it.

#### Prophetic actions

This is a very rare use of the Perfect conjugation, occurring in prophetic utterances.

#### Perfect copulative

This form adds the conjunction waw (וְ “and”) to the normal Perfect conjugation and can express any of the above meanings. This form appears identical to the Sequential Perfect.

## Word Order

### Summary

There is no standard word order in Biblical Aramaic. In this respect, Biblical Aramaic differs signicantly from Biblical Hebrew.

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